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We report here the occurrence of petrified wood resembling the modern dipterocarp Dryobalanops from the Neogene (late Miocene) of the Bengal Basin, India. We have determined the taxonomic position ...

Tirkaamiana MT, Partasasmita R. Kamarubayana L. 2019. Growth patterns of Shorea leprosula and Dryobalanops lanceolata in Borneo’s forest managed with Selective Cutting with Line Replanting System. Biodiversitas 20: 1160-1165. Dryobalanops lanceolata is a species of plant in the family Dipterocarpaceae, which indigenous of Borneo. It is found in at least five protected areas (Kabilli-Sepilok Forest Reserve, Danum Valley Conservation Area, Ulu Temburong, Lambir, and Gunung Mulu National Parks), but is threatened elsewhere due to habitat loss. The demand for its timber is very high, so it requires conservation efforts while at the same time maintaining its productivity to meet the timber demand. One of the efforts to increase productivity of production forest in Indonesia is implementing Selective Logging with Line Replanting System (TPTJ). In this system superior species are planted in the planting lines. This study aimed to determine the growth of Shorea leprosula and Dryobalanops lanceolata planted in different planting line widths. Data of diameter increment of S. leprosula and D. lanceolata were obtained by observing 4 permanent sample plots (PUP) at concession areas of PT Balikpapan Forest Industries in Penajam Paser Utara, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. The results showed that the average diameter increment of S. leprosula and D. lanceolata at the planting line width of 3 meters was 1.47cm/yr and 0.74 cm/yr respectively, and at the planting line width of 6 meters was 2.08 cm/yr and 1.14 cm/yr respectively. The differences in planting line width had very significant effect on the growth and diameter increment of S. leprosula, presumably due to the increase of light intensity to optimal level which accelerates stomata opening and transpiration rate, thus affecting the rate of photosynthesis.

Objectives Efforts to restore tropical peat swamp forests in Indonesia face huge challenges of potential failures due to socio-economic factors and ecological dynamics attributed to lack of knowledge on the adaptive mechanisms of potential tree species such as Kapur (Dryobalanops aromatica C.F.Gaertn Syn. Dryobalanops sumatrensis J.F. Gmelin A.J.G.H Kostermans). This species is a multi-purpose tree that, commonly grows in mineral soils, but also in peat swamp as previously reported, which raised a fundamental question regarding the molecular mechanism of this adaptation. Therefore, a dataset was created aiming to detect candidates of adaptive genes in D. aromatica seedlings, cultivated in two contrasting potting media, namely mineral soil and peat media, based on RNA Sequencing Transcriptome Analysis. Data description The RNA transcriptome data of D. aromatica’s seedlings derived from young leaves of three one-year-old seedlings, raised in each dry mineral soil media and peat media, were generated by using Illumina HiSeq 4000 platform in NovogenAIT, Singapore. The acquired data, as the first transcriptome dataset for D. aromatica, is of a great importance in understanding molecular mechanism and responses of the involved genes of D. aromatica to the contrasting, growing potting media conditions that could also be useful to generate molecular markers.

Rehabilitation of degraded forest is being intensified in Borneo, effort by the INIKEA Rehabilitation Project in Luasong (Sabah) has resulted in healthy growth of native timber species to Borneo. Slow growth rate of Dipterocarps has been attributed to presence of biofoulers on its leaves and herbivory. Therefore, an investigation was conducted to document the coverage and distribution of foliicolous lichens on the leaves of five common timber species Dipterocarpus conformis, Dryobalanops lanceolate, Dryobalanops keithii, Shorea ovalis, and Shorea fallax, planted during this project in 2008. Colonization of foliicolous lichen on timber species was seen to exist in two distinct pattern; leaves of genus Shorea showed surface colonization of 28–29%, while genus Dipterocarpus and Drybalanopsis exhibited a lesser coverage of 15–18%. A total of 32 species belonging to nine families were recorded during the course of this study. Lichen diversity was higher on leaves of Dipterocarpus conformis and Shorea ovalis as compared to the other three species. In addition, nine new records of foliicolous lichens were isolated, identified and their descriptions are presented here. Keywords: INIKEA, Borneo, Dipterocarps, Biofoulers, Foliicolous lichens

A method for compound identification based on mass fragmentation patterns was developed to distinguish known oligostilbenes directly in crude plant extracts. Eleven pure oligostilbenes were used as standard compounds, and a pilot database of MS data was established. Seven extracts from Dipterocarpaceous plants; three from Neobalanocarpus heimii, three from Dryobalanops spp. and one from Dipterocarpus semivestitus were used as test materials. Eleven compounds were positively identified in the heartwood extract, nine in the bark, and six in the leaves of Neobalanocarpus heimii, one compound each in Dryobalanops lanceolata, D. rappa and D. aromatica, as well as two in Dipterocarpus semivestitus extract. Identification of all compounds were performed within a short analysis time.

Dryobalanops aromatica is a new species in the family of Lauraceae with high content of D-borneol, which is an important raw material of premium spices and medicine widely used in China. The genome and the molecular phylogenetic relation of this novel species had not been analyzed before. In this study, we present the complete sequence of chloroplast genome of D. aromatic, as well as its genome annotation. The complete chloroplast sequences in length were 152,696 bp, with two single-copy regions 93,610 bp and 18,902 bp in length, which were separated by two inverted repeat regions with 20,092 bp in length. In total, 128 genes were predicted with GC content at 39.16%. Phylogenetic analysis showed that D. aromatica is closest to Gossypium sturtianum in Lauraceae. The sequence and annotation of the chloroplast genome of Dryobalanops aromatic will be useful for further studies on the taxonomy in Lauraceae.

Kapur (Dryobalanops aromatica) is an important dipterocarp species currently classified as vulnerable by the IUCN Red List Threatened Species. Science-based conservation and restoration efforts are needed, which can be supported by new genomic data generated from new technologies, including MinION Oxford Nanopore Technology (ONT). ONT allows affordable long-read DNA sequencing, but this technology is still rarely applied to native Indonesian forest trees. Therefore, this study aimed to generate whole genome datasets through ONT and use part of these data to construct the draft of the chloroplast genome and analyze the universal DNA barcode-based genetic relationships for D. aromatica. The method included DNA isolation, library preparation, sequencing, bioinformatics analysis, and phylogenetic tree construction. Results showed that the DNA sequencing of D. aromatica resulted in 1.55 Gb of long-read DNA sequences from which a partial chloroplast genome (148,856 bp) was successfully constructed. The genetic relationship was analyzed using two selected DNA barcodes (rbcL and matK), and its combination showed that species of the genus Dryobalanops had a close relationship as indicated by adjacent branches between species. The phylogenetic tree of matK and the combination of the matK and rbcL genes showed that D. aromatica was closely related to Dryobalanops rappa, whereas the rbcL gene showed group separation between D. aromatica and D. rappa. Therefore, a combination of the matK and rbcL genes is recommended for future use in the phylogenetic or phylogenomic analysis of D. aromatica.

Urea formaldehyde resin is an adhesive for interior plywood manufacturing. Some materials can be added to the resin to reduce the glue utilization. This paper describes a study on the effect of extender addition to urea formaldehyde resin on the bonding strength of kapur ( Dryobalanops sp.) plywood. This research used cassava flour and its dextrin as an extender with 3 percentage levels of extender i.e.: 10 %, 30%, and 50% based on weight of liquid resin. Each extender type has refinement of 100 and 200 mesh. The results showed that the effect of extender type on plywood bonding strength was not significant, while the percentage of extender has highly significant effect on the plywood bonding strength. The higher the extender percentage the lower the plywood bonding strength. Cassava flour 30% and its dextrin for extender meet the Japanese standard.

Mechanical properties of finger joints made from eight Malaysian tropical hardwood species were investigated in this study. The wood species studied were merpauh ( Swintonia spp.), kapur ( Dryobalanops spp.), resak ( Cotylelobium spp.), white meranti ( Shorea spp.), bintangor ( Calophyllum spp.), jelutong ( Dyera spp.) sesendok ( Endospermum spp.) and kelempayan ( Neolamarckia cadamba ). All of the selected wood species fell into strength group (SG) ranged from SG 4 to SG 7 as described in MS 544: Part 2. Effects of species, finger orientations (horizontal and vertical) and fingers lengths (15 mm and 25 mm) on mechanical properties of finger joints were evaluated. It was observed that bonding properties of low-density wood was better than high-density wood due to better wettability characteristics. Intimate bonding between wood and adhesive was found in low-density wood as its higher porosity promoted better resin penetration. Better joint efficiency was also observed in low-density wood. Finger joints made from longer finger (25 mm) generally exhibited better strength properties compared to shorter one. Samples that jointed vertically displayed superior properties in comparison to that of jointed horizontally. Non-destructive evaluation technique was found not suitable to estimate the static modulus of elasticity of the finger joints that fabricated in this study and further improvements is needed to obtain better result.

Measuring the volume of logs which have been rafted on the rivers is very difficult. The difficulty is mostly in measuring the average top and bottom diameters of logs because the largest portion of logs are inside the water. In this paper, the results of measurements carried out both on the ground and in the river are described. Lately, log measurement in the river is necessary because: a. Volume of logs sent to industries would be measured in the river. b. Many logs of the illegal cutting found are rafted in the river. The observation reveals that : 1. Volumes of logs measured on the ground and in the river are significantly different. 2. From the sample of 60 logs of Dryobalanops spp. it is found that the total volume measured on the ground is 273,18 m3, while the total volume measured in the river is 262, 76 m3. The total difference is 10,42 m3 or 0,04 m3 per_m3 in average. 3. the correction factor (FK) then is 0,04 m3 per m3 or 3,81 %. It means that the volume of log measured in the river is smaller than the volume Measured on the ground. Therefore, the volume measured in the river should be multiplied with the correction factor of 1.04 to obtain the real volume as measured on the ground.

Study on leaf properties of an endangered dipterocarp tree species, Dryobalanops beccarii, was conducted in a restored forest. The study focused on the morphology, nutrient concentration and gas exchange in well-developed leaves of D. beccarii at different ontogenetic phases. The hypothesis tested that leaf physiological and morphological changes are related to the nutrient concentration level of D. beccarii leaves in each ontogenetic phase. Seedling leaves were small and thin, whereas adult tree leaves were the large and thick. The stomata density per unit was abundant in adult tree leaves as compared to seedlings and saplings leaves. The net photosynthetic rate (Pn), transpiration rate (A) and stomatal conductance (gs) was increased from the seedling phase until the sapling phase, but decreased as the D. beccarii reached the mature phase. Scarce stomata density in seedling leaves contributed to low Pn, A and gs, while sapling leaves recorded opposite results due to abundant stomata density accompanied by highest accumulation of nitrogen (N) content per unit leaf area. The low concentration of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and magnesium (Mg) detracted the gas exchange performance. Hence, changes in leaf morphology and physiology of D. beccarii were affected by the differences in resource used at each tree ontogenetic phase.

Assessment of the floristic composition provides information on forest succession stage which is important but only relatively few information are available on the rehabilitated tropical forest. The information can provide an indication of the recovery status of the forest. The objective of this study was to assess the floristic composition of selected age stands at a rehabilitated forest situated in Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Sarawak Campus, Sarawak, Malaysia. A 20 x 20 m plot (0.04 ha) was established each in stands planted in 1991, 1999, 2008 and an adjacent natural regenerating secondary forest (± 23-year-old). All stands were tagged, identified and analyzed for species composition, Importance Value (IV), species diversity and similarity. Floristic analysis showed that in the rehabilitated forest, over 50% of the total family was dominated by the Dipterocarpaceae family but only 14% in natural regenerating secondary forest. Based on the IV Index, stand year 1991 was dominated by Shorea dasyphylla (IV=155.8) while stand year 1999, 2008 and natural regenerating secondary forest were Dryobalanops beccarii (IV=156.2), Sandoricum borneense (IV=144.4) Teijsmanniodendron holophyllum (IV=115.3), respectively. The Simpson’s diversity index at the rehabilitated forest ranged from 0.82 to 0.87 compared to 0.98 at the natural regenerating secondary forest whereas the Shannon-Wiener diversity index ranged from 2.04 to 2.29 compared to 4.23, respectively. Jaccard’s Coefficient of Similarity (Cj) between all combinations of the study plots was generally low (2.2-19.4%). Rehabilitated forest exhibited climax species community despite having lower species diversity. This can promote the conservation of these climax species.

Kapur (Dryobalanops sp.) and Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi) wood samples were heat-treated in air at 180 °C for 24 and 48 h. Leaching and toxicity tests were conducted to determine the ecotoxicity effect of these heat-treated woods on the aquatic environment due to heat treatment. The toxicity of conventional preservative-treated woods, i.e. chromated copper arsenate (CCA) and ammoniacal copper quat (ACQ), was also determined for comparison purposes. Acute toxicity tests were performed using two aquatic organisms, Daphnia magna and Vibrio fischeri according to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development standard procedures and Microtox assay, respectively. Significantly low toxicity to D. magna was found for the heat-treated Kapur compared to that of untreated Kapur, while heat-treated Japanese larch did not show any toxicity effect. As expected, ACQ-treated samples showed the highest toxicity to D. magna, followed by that of CCA, though toxicity of both preservative-treated woods further reduced over time. Hence, heat treatment of Kapur and Japanese larch were believed to be not harmful to the aquatic ecosystem.

The study describes moulding recovery and quality of seven Indonesian industrial wood species, i,e. meranti putih (shorea koordersii), sungkai (phenomena canescens jack). Cempaka (elmerillia ovalis dandy), dahu (dracontomelon dao), perupuk (solenospermum sp.) meranti merah (shorea sp.). and kapur (dryobalanops sp.). It is found that volume recovery varies from 38.7 to 80.2 per cent. An optimal allowances for moulding raw material are 3.0 mm in thickness and 9.6 mm in yidth Sungkai, dahu, perupuk and kapur species produced the best moulding quality. Moulding quality of the other species is found to be of good quality. The processing of cempaka and meranti species, especially on their radial surface or quarter swan timber, should be undertaken carefully because of they have genetical interlocked grains.

Heat treatment is one of the environmental friendly ways to treat timber that will lead to the improvement of timber natural quality and equip the timber with new properties. It is an eco friendly and alternative treatment method that will modify the properties of timber by using high temperature instead of using chemical preservatives as common practice. This paper presents the effect of heat treatment on physical properties which is density for two types of Malaysia hardwood namelykapurandkeruing. Specially design electronic furnace was used as an oven for the heat treatment process. The result shows a reduction in density after heat treatment, however the difference is not merely significant. Lower in density indicates a weight loss which theoretically caused by moisture content loss thus leading to the increment of movement stability.

The genus Dryobalanops Gaertn. f. is a small but important genus that contains seven species and is found in the Southeast Asian tropical rain forests. Seven polymorphic nuclear microsatellite markers were analyzed in 46 natural populations of six extant Dryobalanops species (N = 700 individuals) covering the distribution range in Western Malesia. The mean gene diversity at the species level ranged from 0.392 in D. rappa to 0.635 in D. aromatica. The FST value ranged from 0.156 in D. keithii to 0.283 in D. beccarii and all FST values were highly significantly greater than zero. These results suggest that gene flow between populations has been limited and intensive genetic drift has occurred in all of the species. Plants with narrowly distributed species such as D. keithii and D. rappa, which are endemic to Borneo, tend to have lower levels of genetic diversity compared with widespread species such as D. aromatica. STRUCTURE analysis revealed that at least two of the six species could be effectively discriminated each other. The results of this study will be helpful for building effective conservation schemes as well as for providing basic data for future provenance trials of Dryobalanops species.

A new trimeric oligostilbene, malaysianol D (1) and galloylglucoside, malaysin A (2), together with twelve known compounds (3–14) have been isolated from the methanol extract of the stem bark of Dryobalanops beccarii by combination of vacuum and radial chromatography techniques. Their structures were established on the basis of their spectroscopic evidence and comparison with the published data. The cytotoxic activity of isolated compounds was tested against A549 and MCF-7 cancer cell lines.

The existence of Dryobalanops sumatrensis and D. oblongifolia subsp. oblongifolia in Indonesia’s natural forest is increasingly threatened due to land use changes and illegal logging leading to the urgent need of conservation actions in the field. Vegetative propagation by shoot cuttings has been proposed as an alternative method, yet there have been still lacks of information regarding the suitable rooting media and the use of shoots from saplings as cutting materials. This study was to evaluate the survival rate, rooting and shoot sprouting abilites of D. sumatrensis and D. oblongifolia subsp. oblongifolia on two different media (mineral soil and peat). Saplings of the D. sumatrensis aged older than 7 years old and D. oblongifolia subsp. oblongifolia aged less than 2 years old were used as cutting materials. The results showed that the survival rate of D. sumatrensis in peat (43.75%) and mineral soil media (43.75%) was lower than D. oblongifolia subsp. oblongifolia in for peat media (54.55%) and minerals soil media (71.88%). The rooting and shoot sprouting percentage of D. sumatrensis in peat and mineral soil media was also lower than D. oblongifolia subsp oblongifolia. This pattern revealed that the media treatment (peat and minerals) did not affect the survival rate and rooting ability of D. sumatrensis shoot cuttings, but has an effect on D. oblongifolia subsp. oblongifolia.

Kamper is one of high value tree species from North Sumatra. Its timber has high economic value and has been targeted for exploitation since decades. Identification of species diversity and further their origin and the evolutionary process is important in the conservation strategy of the targeted species. The aims of this research were to get the information about optimal isolation of DNA genomics procedure and primer amplification for Kamper species by applying various primer tested, those were: ITS 2, matK Kim 1, trnH-psbA, trnL-trnF (c and d), trnL-trnF (c and f) and rbcL. The DNA extraction was conducted by CTAB method with some mild modifications to a few stages. The result showed that the modified CTAB method could yield good quality DNA. rbcL with the primer volume as much F: 1µl and R: 1 µl produces the best–amplified band.

The objective of this experimental study was to evaluate bonding strength of specimens from widely used three species, pine (Pinus strobus), kapur (Dryobalanops spp.) and meranti (Shorea spp.) as they were sanded with different grits of sandpapers. Surface quality of control samples and those sanded with 80, 100 and 240 grit sandpapers was determined using a stylus type equipment. Control samples of both hardwood species resulted in less smoother surface values when they were sanded with 80 grit sandpaper. Rougher surface quality of the samples had higher bonding values as compared to those of control specimens as well as those sanded with 100 and 240 grits. Based on the findings in this work, the stylus method can have a potential to evaluate surface roughness of these specimens to have a better understanding of overall bonding quality of such species so that they can be used more effectively for different applications.

The influence of physical and chemical properties of 20 species of imported wood on degradation of the wood by termites under field conditions was studied. The wood species studied were: Sycamore maple, Acer pseudoplatanus L. (Sapindales: Sapindaceae) (from two countries), Camphor, Dryobalanops aromatic C.F.Gaertner (Malvales: Dipterocarpaceae), Beech, Fagus grandifolia Ehrhart (Fagales: Fagaceae), F. sylvatica L. (from two countries), Oak, Quercus robur L., Ash, Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl (Lamiales: Oleaceae), F. excelsior L., Padauk, Pterocarpus soyauxii Taubert (Fabales: Fabaceae), (from two countries), Jamba, Xylia dolabrifiormis Roxburgh, Shorea laevis Ridley (Malvales: Dipterocarpaceae), S. macoptera Dyer, S. robusta Roth, Teak, Tectona grandis L.f. (Lamiales: Lamiaceae) (from five countries), and rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis Müller Argoviensis (Malpighiales: Euphorbiaceae) from India. The termites present were: Odontotermes horni (Wasmann) (Isoptera: Termitidae), O. feae, O. wallonensis, and O. obeus (Rambur). A significant conelation was found between density, cellulose, lignin, and total phenolic contents of the wood and degradation by termites. The higher the density of the wood, the lower the degradation. Similarly, higher amount of lignin and total phenolic contents ensured higher resistance, whereas cellulose drives the termites towards the wood.

Heat treatment is one of the environmental friendly ways to treat timber that will lead to the improvement of timber natural quality and equip the timber with new properties. It is an eco-friendly and alternative treatment method that will modify the properties of timber by using high temperature instead of using chemical preservatives as common practice. This paper presents the effect of heat treatment on physical properties which is density for two types of Malaysian hardwood namely pauh kijang and kapur. Specially, design electronic furnace was used as an oven for the heat treatment process. The result shows a reduction in density after heat treatment, however, the difference is not merely significant. Reduction in density indicates a weight loss which is theoretically caused by moisture content loss thus leading to the increment of movement stability.

A flavonoid survey was carried out on 45 taxa from the genera Shorea, Hopea, Parashorea, Neobalanocarpus, and Dryobalanops of the tribe Shoreae in the Dipterocarpaceae. The study showed significant chemotaxonomic differences in leaf flavonoid aglycone patterns and the presence of tannins in these taxa. The flavonoid patterns are useful in the delimitation of some taxa. For example, the genus Parashorea is distinguished by the universal presence of kaempferol 3-methyl ether, and the monotypic genus Neobalanocarpus is unique in not producing ellagic and gallo tannins. The presence of chalcones and flavone C-glycosides supports the separation of the genus Hopea into two sections, section Dryobalanoides and section Hopea in Ashton's classification, which is based on the type of venation. The flavonoid distributions in this study show that they can be very useful for differentiating between the Balau group in the genus Shorea, and some scaly barked Hopea species, particularly H. helferi (lintah bukit), H. nutans (giam), and H. ferrea (malut). (C) 2008 The Linnean Society of London.

Leaf physiological and morphological responses were studied in seedlings of seven dipterocarp species planted in three degraded forest environments: grassland, logged remnant forest and secondary forest. Dryobalanops beccarii, Parashorea macrophylla, Shorea macrophylla, S. ovata, S. par vifolia, S. seminis and S. virescens were used as study species. The leaf photosynthetic rate at light saturation (A max), the dark respiration rate (R d), light compensation point (I c), leaf mass per area (LMA) and SPAD value were measured during the 38 months after planting. Water loss by detached leaves was also determined at 13 months after planting. In the grassland, LMA and A max increased from three months after planting in all species except S. ovata. The time by which 50% of total leaf water content had been lost from detached leaves was positively correlated with LMA, suggesting that species with high LMA (D. beccarii, S. ovata and S. par vifolia ) have high tolerance to desiccation in the grassland. The positive correlation found between LMA and A max indicates that LMA accelerated the photosynthetic rate, although those species with higher A max/LMA (P. macrophylla, S. macrophylla and S. seminis) had low tolerance of desiccation in the grassland. The seedlings planted in the remnant forest had lower leaf R d and higher SPAD values than in the other environments. Large increase in SPAD value and decrease of I c in P. macrophylla and S. virescens suggest that both species have acclimation ability to the remnant forest. The lowest mortality and I c in the remnant forest was in S. seminis and suggests high shade tolerance in this species. In contrast, S. ovata, which maintained the highest I c over the measurement period, may suffer greatest mortality in the remnant forest. In the secondary forest, the leaf A max, LMA and SPAD value were intermediate in value between the other two environments. We conclude that leaf ecophysiological traits in dipterocarp seedlings differ significantly between species. This is information needed for enrichment planting in degraded tropical rainforest areas in Southeast Asia.

Subro IL. 2015. Population and potential of Ploiarium alternifolium (Theaceae) in the post fire peat forests of Kalampangan, Central Kalimantan. Pros Sem Nas Masy Biodiv Indon 1: 727-731. Indonesia has wetlands, include the largest peat swamp forests among the tropical countries, which is the size of about 21 million hectares and are scattered mainly in Kalimantan, Sumatra, and Papua. Most peatlands are still covered by forest and are habitats for many species of flora and fauna that is unique and rare. Fires in Kalimantan caused the damage and the extinction of some species of animals and plants that have not been known their existence and moreover their function for human life. Peat forest affected by the fire will soon regenerate and become secondary forest with the pioneering species such as Macaranga, Anthocephalus, Shorea, Dryobalanops, and Cratoxylum. This study aimed to determine the population and the existence of potential species which was done by the square plots and the exploratory method on the flowering and fruiting plants, and also the abundant species in the surrounding post-fire peat forests. Based on the analysis of data, population and distribution Ploiarium alternifolium was very abundant. This species was a source of local food that needs to be preserved, has the potential to be developed and used as the processed products in favoring of family food security.

Ultramafic soils have naturally high concentrations of metals and are often low in major plant nutrients. Plant species of non-ultramafic origin, such as Dryobalanops lanceolata (Dipterocarpaceae), generally grow less well on these soils. I found minimal changes in growth, but a 17% reduction in foliar potassium, when seedlings of D. lanceolata were grown in a non-native ultramafic soil when compared with a ‘normal’ tropical ultisol. There were, however, marked changes in the ectomycorrhizal community structure on the roots of D. lanceolata. Cenococcum geophilum was at least 10 times more common and Inocybe sp. was one and a half times more common in non-ultramafic soils, whereas Boletales sp. was over 30 times more common in the non-ultramafic soil. These changes may have been brought about by a number of edaphic differences between the two soil types, including high metal concentrations and differences in organic matter content.

In order to construct a molecular phylogeny of Indonesian Dipterocarpoideae (Dipterocarpaceae), PCR-RFLP of the chloroplast regions rbcL, petB, psbA, psaA, and trnL-F was performed with seven restriction enzymes in 129 samples including 58 species from nine genera. In the strict consensus tree with Monotes kerstingii as outgroup Indonesian Dipterocarpaceae were divided into two major clades. One clade (bootstrap value=71) consisted of Upuna, Cotylelobium, Anisoptera, Vatica, Dipterocarpus (tribe Dipterocarpeae, bootstrap value=83) and Dryobalanops (tribe Shoreae, bootstrap value=99) in a basal position. The second clade consisted of Hopea, Parashorea, and Shorea (tribe Shoreae) with 95% bootstrap support. Tribe Dipterocarpeae is monophyletic, tribe Shoreae is polyphyletic since Dryobalanops is sister to tribe Dipterocarpeae. In the neighbour-joining tree the sister group position of Dryobalanops to tribe Dipterocarpeae is not supported by the bootstrap analysis. Alternatively, we used Upuna borneensis as outgroup. The effect of outgroup selection on tree topology, taxonomic classification and the interpretation of character evolution is discussed.

We investigated the predispersal survivorship of seeds of six dipterocarp species (Dipterocarpus globosus, D. tempehes, Dryobalanops aromatica, D. lanceolata, Shorea beccariana ,a ndS. pilosa) during 2001–2002, when a general flowering occurred in Lambir Hills National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. More immature seeds dropped during the first month in Dryobalanops and Shorea spp. than in Dipterocarpus spp. Insects attacked the seeds of all species during all developmental stages through to maturity, although temporal patterns varied among the dipterocarps. In contrast, arboreal vertebrates only occasionally ate seeds, and produced less damage than insects. In four species, insects damaged a significantly higher percentage of seeds than did vertebrates. Direct observations of seed survival patterns and bagging experiments using two sizes of mesh (cloth and wire) in the canopy of Dryobalanops aromatica identified insects as the principal seed predators during both the last phase, and overall. These results document the relative importance of insects as predispersal seed predators in these dipterocarp species.

To investigate whether seedlings of ten dipterocarp species differed significantly in terms of growth and mortality or whether species were not significantly different and could be considered ecologically similar, seedlings were grown, two per pot, in two experiments: (1) where the two seedlings were of equal height (30 cm); and (2) where one seedling was 10 cm shorter than the other. Seedlings were grown in a shade house with 15% above-canopy light in a 50:50 forest soil–sand mixture and were watered frequently; pots were placed so that seedling density was 130 seedlings m−2 of ground. In the first experiment there were 45 pairwise combinations of species when seedlings were 30 cm tall (AB, AC, AD,…. BC, BD…IJ; where A, B, C…J signify different species); each combination was replicated 10 times so there were 450 pots with 900 seedlings. In the second experiment there were 100 pairwise combinations of species and size e.g. Aa (30 cm A with 20 cm a), Ab (30 cm A with 20 cm b), each combination was replicated 10 times hence there were 1000 pots with 2000 seedlings. After 22 mo 79% of the initial 2900 seedlings survived; on average they had grown 42 cm (i.e. to 72 cm tall from their initial 30 cm). The most frequent outcome of competition-trials between different sized individuals (784 of 1000 trials) was that the initially taller seedling of each pair ‘won’ (it was the taller or surviving seedling). When 900 of these trials (setting aside, Aa, Bb, Cc etc.) were analysed as 45 comparisons between species with different sized individuals (Ab and aB are one interspecific comparison for these purposes), initial height determined the outcome in 23 cases (even in some competitions between light hardwood species and heavy hardwood species); in 6 cases a species (mostly light hardwoods) behaved as a ‘dominant’ – they usually won even if they were smaller initially. We found few significant differences between species in: initial seedling heights; leaf nitrogen concentrations; and specific leaf areas when they were grown in similar conditions, and these attributes were not correlated with growth rates. The similarity of seedlings of different species meant that often a height difference of just 10 cm was enough to determine the outcome of a pairwise competition-trial in high seedling densities and light equivalent to that in forest gaps.

We compared seedlings of sandy-soil specialist species (Dryobalanops aromatica and Scaphium borneense) and clay-rich-soil specialist congeners (D. lanceolata and S. longipetiolatum) in a tropical rain forest in Lambir Hills National Park, Malaysia, to determine whether variations in belowground seedling architecture and allometry were related to edaphic specialization. A convergent trait that was phylogenetically independent across the two genera was the presence of a deeper tap-root at any height and any root biomass in sandy-soil specialists than in clay-rich-soil specialists. This trait was fixed independently of the edaphic conditions in which the trees actually grew. Finer-textured soils generally have better water-holding capacity; we concluded that seasonal water limitation would be more severe in sandy soils than in clay-rich soils, and that water limitation would provoke convergence in seedling root depth among species with the same edaphic preferences. All significant differences found in interspecific comparison within Dryobalanops were consistent with the water-availability hypothesis; the sandy-soil specialist had larger root biomass at any total biomass and had smaller leaf biomass at any root biomass than the clay-rich-soil specialist. However, for Scaphium this was not the case, suggesting that factors other than water-limitation may also underlie seedling allometric relationships.

The physical and chemical seed characteristics of 11 dipterocarp species (fourDipterocarpus, twoDryobalanopsand fiveShoreaspecies) were quantified to examine variations among species. We measured dry weight, pericarp thickness and concentrations of nitrogen, total phenol, condensed tannin, lignin, lipid, starch and total sugar. Although there was low intraspecific variation among parent trees, each species had unique characteristics. We found significant correlations between chemical defensive compounds (i.e. lignin and total phenol) and nitrogen concentration. However, these relationships were no longer significant when an outlier was removed. Fruiting frequency was not significantly correlated with any chemical compound. Seeds ofShoreaspecies had a higher concentration of lipid than seeds ofDipterocarpus. The implications of variation in the physical and chemical characteristics of dipterocarp seeds are discussed.

The photosynthetic rate of seed wings developed from sepals was compared with the leaf photosynthetic rate in nine dipterocarp tree species (Dipterocarpus pachyphyllus, Dryobalanops aromatica, Dryobalanops lanceolata, Shorea beccariana, Shorea ferruginea, Shorea macroptera ssp. bailonii, Shorea macroptera ssp. macropterifolia, Shorea pilosa, and Vatica spp.). The wings showed positive photosynthetic activity, but at much lower rates than in the leaves. The daily CO2 uptake of wings showed slightly negative values in diurnal gas exchange measurements, even in D. aromatica that showed the highest photosynthetic capacity of all nine species. This low photosynthetic rate in the wings may be the result of low nitrogen and chlorophyll contents in the wing compared with leaves. However, the wings had a higher C/N ratio than leaves, and were thicker. Hence, dipterocarp wings have physical strength and defence against herbivores as higher priorities than photosynthetic activity.

Native species of the Dipterocarpaceae are being planted throughout Southeast Asia as a source of future timber and to restore degraded lands. A detailed understanding of factors controlling seedling performance is required for the successful planting of dipterocarps. Below-ground resource availability is hypothesized to have a significant affect on seedling performance of dipterocarp species when planted in selectively logged forests or in open, degraded areas. This study tested three methods thought to increase below-ground resource availability and thereby improve the performance of two dipterocarp species (Dryobalanops aromatica and Shorea parvifolia) when grown in degraded secondary forest: nutrient addition, mulching, and increased planting-hole size. Seedlings of the two species were grown in two planting-hole sizes ( 12 cm ×18 cm and 20 cm ×30 cm), with and without nutrients (NPK), and with and without mulching. The experiment was conducted in two sites (Sampadi and Balai Ringin) in Sarawak, Malaysia, to test for spatial variation in treatment effects. Seedling growth and survival were monitored over 22 months. Seedling survival was >94% for both species and did not differ significantly among any of the treatments. High monthly rainfall throughout the first year of the experiment may have enhanced seedling survival. Nutrient addition had the strongest effect on seedling growth for both species, with nutrient addition increasing growth by >50% at Sampadi and for D. aromatica in one block at Balai Ringin. There was significant spatial variation in treatment effects. S. parvifolia did not respond to nutrient addition at Balai Ringin, suggesting that the plants may not have received the added nutrients in that site. Mulching had a positive effect on growth at Sampadi, but no effect or a negative effect at Balai Ringin. Further analysis of the specific effects of mulching on resource supply is required. Planting-hole size did not have a consistent significant effect on the growth of either species. This may have been due to the favorable soil water status during the experiment. The results of this experiment emphasize the potential importance of site effects and interactions between site and treatment effects in enrichment planting trials using dipterocarps. Further experimental studies on below-ground resource limitations of dipterocarp growth in a wide range of sites are required. Studies that monitor the availability and fluxes of soil resources will be the most informative.

Relationships between spatial distributions and site conditions, namely topography and soil texture, were analyzed for two congeneric emergent trees, Dryobalanops aromatica and Dryobalanops lanceolata (Dipterocarpaceae), in a tropical rainforest in Sarawak, East Malaysia. A 52-ha permanent plot was divided into 1300 quadrats measuring 20 m × 20 m; for each Dryobalanops species, the number and total basal area of trees ≥1 cm in d.b.h. were compared among groups of quadrats with different site conditions. Because spatial distributions of both Dryobalanops and site-condition variables were aggregated, Monte-Carlo permutation tests were applied to analyze the relationships. Both single and multifactor statistical tests showed that the density and basal area distributions of the two species were significantly non-random in relation to soil texture and topographic variables. D. aromatica was significantly more abundant at higher elevations, in sandy soils, and on convex and steep slopes. In contrast, D. lanceolata preferred lower elevations and less sandy soils. In the study plot, there were very few sites (3 of 1150 quadrats tested) where the models of Hayashi’s method predicted the co-occurrence of the two species. These results suggest that between-species differences in habitat preferences are so large that they alone explain the spatially segregated distributions of these two species within the 52-ha study plot.

We identified both the fungi and plants of ectomycorrhizal root tips of Dipterocarpaceae using the sequence of mitochondrial large (ML) subunit ribosomal DNA, internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence of nuclear ribosomal DNA, partial matK sequence of chloroplast DNA and trnL-trnF spacer sequence of chloroplast DNA. We compared the DNA sequences from ectomycorrhizal roots with the sequences from the available databases using phylogenetic analysis. The ectomycorrhizal fungi identified by ML and/or ITS sequences belonged to the following seven families: Russulaceae, Boletaceae, Cortinariaceae, Thelephoraceae, Hygrophoraceae, Sclerodermataceae, Cantharellaceae and Amanitaceae. The Dipterocarpaceae species identified by partial matK and/or trnL-trnF sequences belonged to the following genera: Dryobalanops, Hopea, Vatica, Cotylelobium, Anisoptera, Upuna, Dipterocarpus and Shorea. Members of Thelephoraceae, which have never been reported to form symbiotic roots with Dipterocarpaceae, appeared to be the most abundant and were usually associated with Shorea species. Analyses of other Dipterocarpaceae species are needed to confirm these results.

Five hardwood species (Schima superba Gardn, kapur( Dryobalanops sp.), ash (Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr.), birch(Betula platyphylla Suk.), tauari (Couratari sp.)) were conducted the Heat treatment at 185°C.. The results indicated that the dimensional stability, modulus of elasticity (MOE) increased greatly while the wettability decreased after treatment. There was a negative impact of heat treatment on MORs.

Our phytochemical investigation on the stem bark of Dryobalanops aromatica has resulted in the isolation of nine resveratrol oligomers and one bergenin. The structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic data evidence and comparison with literature. The presence of malaysianol A and flexuasol A in the Dipterocarpaceae family is reported for the first time by this work. Furthermore, vaticanol C is characterized for the first time from the genus Dryobalanops. The chemotaxonomic importance of these compounds is also summarized.

Changes in mold populations and genera on the exposed surfaces of tropical hardwoods — albizia (Paraserianthes falcata), kapur (Dryobalanop lanceolata), mahoni (Switenia macrophylla), nangka (Artocarpus heterophyllus), puspa (Schima wallchii) — were investigated. The wood specimens were exposed to the Indonesian climate for 32 weeks. Properties including mass loss, wettability, mold growth (colony-forming units), and mold genera were evaluated. The change in properties after exposure was significantly affected by the wood species, but there was no clear relation between mass loss and the initial chemical components or between wettability and wood density. The number of mold populations was different by exposure period and wood species, but there was no significant effect of climate conditions, such as rainfall and ultraviolet radiation. Of the genera identified,Aureobasidium, Cladosporium, andPenicillium were dominant molds on the exposed wood surfaces.

To optimize the use of resources of Deramakot Forest Reserve, a model area for sustainable management of tropical forests in Sabah, Malaysia, a study on the utilization of hollow logs and other logging residues was initiated. In a pilot study, how much high quality timber can be extracted from trees regarded as hollow by the felling team of the logging contractor was evaluated. The amount of extractable timber considered as timber of low-quality (upper stem parts, top portions, big branches) was also determined. At the same time whether the chain saw method is a reliable method for the detection of hollow stems was tested. Results of the study were as follows: • Several trees, which the sawyer considered to be hollow on the basis of the chain saw method were not hollow at all. The chain saw method proved to be unreliable for the determination of hollow logs or the extent of the hollow. It is suggested that the chain saw method be substituted by the drilling method, which determines the actual wall thickness of hollow logs. Furthermore, it is suggested that the responsibility for the detection of hollow trees be switched from the sawyers to the tree marking teams. • The hollow trees analyzed contained large amounts of good timber (68–99% of the log volume up to the first branch). • In view of modern wood processing techniques (e.g. finger jointing) the quality standards for logs suitable for log sales have to be changed. • The concept of logging residue utilization has to be promoted. Education of contract forestry workers, field staff of the Forestry Department and of the license holders is required in order to change attitudes regarding log quality. A different remuneration system for sawyers has to be developed and implemented. The sawyer has to be encouraged to extract as much timber as possible within the cutting limits and not be discouraged from doing so as is currently the case. • Recovery studies are required to determine the amount of sawn timber and other products produced from hollow log parts and from logging residues like upper stem parts, top portions and big branches. • The technical and economic aspects of hollow log and residue extraction need to be evaluated through case studies.

The purposes of this study are (1) to know the local trees which growing at area before mining operation began and when mining operation by PT. J Resource Bolaang Mongondow has started, (2) to know the kind of local trees which is appropriate with revegetation land, (3) to know technical planning the use of local tree for revegetation gold mine area. This study is use line swath method. This method is as the modification of dual swaths method or track method which with through one or more swaths in the track so that in every line path should have many swaths in some distance. The sampling intensity which use in this study is 10 %. The variables (data) of the study are consists by primary data and secondary data. To collect the data the researcher use a literature study which to collect the first data from many literatures about the analysis of local trees and revegetation land, direct observation, and identify kind of local trees by using work sheet data. The result of the study at the PT. J Resources Bolaang Mongondow Lanut-Site forest area, the researcher have found that (1) 29 species of vegetation tree level with the total number 50 individual trees and vegetation of local trees consist of 8 species and those are Matoa (Pometia pinnata), kitchen wood (Dryobalanops aromatic), Gopasa (Vitex cofassus), Sengon (Albazia moluccana), Benuang (Octomeles sumatrana), Trembesi (Albizia saman), Candlenut (Aleurites moluccana), and Durian (Durio spp). From all of the total number of individual trees which is in 6 swaths examples (plot), (2) it has founded 10 species trees level with the level of dominance (level of mastery) in the vegetation community are: Diangow (Anarcadium Sp), Dongiat/Matoa (Pometia Pinnata), Dau’/Dao (Dracontomelon dao), Toraut/Gopasa (Vitex cofassus), Biluk (Aegle marmefes), Nutmeg (Myristica sp), Dongkat/Stone wood (Irvingia malayana oliv), Atul/Kitchen wood (Dryobalanops aromatic), Tagoy (Laportea sinuate), and tula-tula (Floribundus muel). (3) For the revegetation area planning should be formulated that the revegetation area in gold mine must effective and efficient, because the area with slope and difference contour will have different way to handling (land with 300).

Bearing strength of wood is one of the properties that are use to estimate the lateral connection of wood design strength based on the European Yield Model (EYM), National Design Specification [NDS 2005 in National design specification for wood construction american forest and paper association (AFPA), Washington D.C, 2005] theory. This study investigated the characterisation of load to grain directions and two dowel sizes in two high-density Malaysian hardwood species; Kempas (koompassia Malaccensis) and Kapur (Dryobalanop spp.). Experimental work as stipulated in ASTM 5764-9a [American Standard Testing Method (ASTM) D 5764-95a in ), Standard test method for evaluating dowel-bearing strength of wood and wood-based products, 2007] was adopted. Result shows that according to the species, the lower strength group of species attributes to higher bearing strength of wood. It was also found that the bearing strength of parallel to the grain is higher than the perpendicular to the grain. In terms of dowel diameter, the bearing strength perpendicular and parallel to the grain decreased slightly as the dowel diameter increased regardless of the timber species. The EYM equations were found viable and sufficient in predicting the dowel-bearing strength of bigger dowel diameter for Kempas but not for the smaller dowel diameter. Contradict to Kempas species; the EYM equations were viable for the smaller dowel diameter and not for the bigger dowel diameter for Kapur. Thus, in the case of the insufficient predictions, three modified equations based on EYM, were proposed according to the specific gravity, density, species, dowel diameter and loading directions respectively.