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The purpose of this study was to examine the diagnostic accuracy of English and Spanish language screeners when predicting reading comprehension outcomes in both languages at the end of Grade 1 and Grade 2. Participants were 1221 Latino/a bilingual students in Grade 1 and 1004 in Grade 2 who were attending bilingual programs in the Pacific Northwest and in Texas. We used ROC curve analyses to calculate the area under the curve (AUC; A) for each measure. The decision thresholds we selected resulted in 71% of all comparisons having accuracy of at least 0.75. Letter naming, decoding, and oral reading fluency in Spanish were accurate in predicting reading risk on criterion measures in Spanish and in English in Grades 1 and 2 (A value of 0.75 or above). English screeners, however, only predicted reading risk on the English criterion measure, but not on the Spanish criterion measure, with a few exceptions. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

The purpose of the current study was to examine the influence of L1 (i.e. Spanish) receptive vocabulary on both expressive and receptive knowledge of target vocabulary words taught through L2 (i.e....

We review studies that examined whether children who have been diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and who are from culturally and linguistically diverse communities benefit more from bei...

We examine the promise, usability, and feasibility of an intelligent tutoring system (ITS) to improve the vocabulary and language proficiency in science and social studies of Latinx second grade En...

We examine the effects of a read aloud replication intervention designed to improve the vocabulary, comprehension, and expository and narrative language outcomes of first grade students. Thirty-nine first-grade classrooms from 12 schools were randomly assigned to a treatment (n = 19) or comparison condition (n = 20). Teachers in the treatment condition implemented a 19-week set of read aloud lessons during whole-class read aloud time. Read alouds included the systematic use of narrative and expository texts, before-, during-, and after-reading components, the use of teacher-facilitated text-based discourse, and explicit comprehension instruction. Results indicated main effects of treatment on vocabulary knowledge. Exploratory findings indicated a significant interaction effect of treatment and recommended features of read aloud instruction on all outcomes. Specifically, students of teachers in the treatment condition who were rated higher on adhering to recommended features of read aloud instruction had better outcomes on vocabulary, comprehension, and language outcomes on expository and narrative text than treatment teachers who closely followed intervention materials without dynamically adjusting to student responses. We discuss these findings in the context of other read aloud studies, including a previous study that used the same intervention in a different setting and with a less diverse sample of students.

This experimental study explores the effects of workshops designed to increase directly the knowledge of Latinx parents, and indirectly, their children’s vocabulary knowledge. Thirty-two Latinx mot...

Universal screening is a critical component of school-based prevention systems. Screening data enable educators to target students for supplemental intervention, align resources to meet needs, and identify students who may be at risk for learning disabilities. One major requirement of the screening process is that all students are included to gain an accurate picture of school performance. It is therefore surprising that few evaluations of screening systems have focused on English language measures and their use with English learners. In this article, we aim to evaluate common screening thresholds, 54 across Grades k–3, to determine the extent to which they may differ between English learners and English proficient students. Results indicate that many thresholds are consistent between groups with some exceptions in kindergarten. We discuss implications for screening assessment and decision making but suggest that similar cut scores across groups do not imply similar intervention strategies.

This study explores the effects of a Spanish vocabulary intervention on the literacy outcomes of students at risk for vocabulary difficulties in Chile. We screened 2nd-grade students (N = 84) with ...

We investigated whether individual differences in overall receptive vocabulary knowledge measured at the beginning of the year moderated the effects of a kindergarten vocabulary intervention that supplemented classroom vocabulary instruction. We also examined whether moderation would offset the benefits of providing Tier-2 vocabulary intervention within a multitiered-system-of-support (MTSS) or response-to-intervention framework. Participants included students from two previous studies identified as at risk for language and learning difficulties who were randomly assigned in clusters to receive small-group vocabulary intervention in addition to classroom vocabulary instruction ( n = 825) or to receive classroom vocabulary instruction only ( n = 781). A group of not-at-risk students ( n = 741) who received classroom vocabulary instruction served as a reference group. Initial vocabulary knowledge measured at pretest moderated the impact of intervention on experimenter-developed measures of expressive vocabulary learning and listening comprehension favoring students with higher initial vocabulary knowledge. Tier-2 intervention substantially counteracted the Matthew effect for target word learning. Intervention effects on listening comprehension depended on students’ initial vocabulary knowledge. Implications present benefits and challenges of supporting vocabulary learning within an MTSS framework.

The purpose of this pilot study with a within-subject design was to gain a deeper understanding about the promise and restrictions of a virtual tutoring system designed to teach science to first grade students in Finland. Participants were 61 students who received six tutoring science sessions of approximately 20 min each. Sessions consisted of a sequence of narrated multimedia science presentations during which a virtual tutor explained science phenomena displayed in pictures. Narrated science explanations were followed by one or more multiple choice questions with immediate feedback about students’ choices and a possible second attempt, during which students reached 97% accuracy. A pretest and posttest was administered to assess students’ ability to reason about the science and to transfer knowledge to new contexts. Results indicated significantly greater improvement in the understanding of the science concepts taught during the tutoring sessions, relative to the concepts that were not taught. Results from the surveys administered to teachers and students indicated that the program was well received. Detailed analysis of student error responses provided a deeper understanding about the complex interplay between students’ prior knowledge, the way topics were taught in the multimedia lessons, and the way learning was assessed. Findings from the quantitative and qualitative analyses are discussed in the context of designing high quality lessons delivered through a virtual tutoring system. peerReviewed

This study examines the effect of 30 min of small group explicit instruction on reading outcomes for first-grade Spanish-speaking English learners (ELs) at risk of reading difficulties. Participants were 78 ELs from seven schools who were receiving Spanish only, or Spanish and English, whole group reading instruction in first grade. Students were rank-ordered within schools and then randomly assigned to a treatment condition ( n = 39) or a comparison condition ( n = 39). Students in the treatment condition received instruction on transition elements that supported their transfer of skills from Spanish to English. Students in the comparison condition received Business as Usual instruction from a variety of commercially available programs. Findings indicated that ELs in both conditions made significant gains from pretest to posttest on all reading outcomes even though instruction in the treatment condition focused significantly more on higher order skills (i.e., vocabulary, comprehension, and transition elements) whereas instruction in the comparison condition focused significantly more on lower order skills (i.e., phonics, word work, and sentence reading). Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

We conducted two studies to examine the effects of an interactive read aloud and vocabulary intervention on the vocabulary knowledge of Spanish-speaking preschoolers living in the U.S. In Study 1, 68 children (n = 34 in the treatment group) and 6 parents in the treatment group received the intervention in Spanish at home, and in Spanish and English in the preschool. Results indicated a significant effect of the intervention on children's receptive and expressive vocabulary knowledge in Spanish favoring the treatment group. Effect sizes were moderate to large. English outcomes were significant for the treatment group only on the receptive vocabulary measure. Children who participated in the Home plus Preschool intervention (n = 6) made significant gains on their Spanish vocabulary knowledge with large effect sizes. In Study 2 we conducted a single subject design study with four preschool children and their mothers. The intervention was provided at home. Results indicated a change from baseline to maintenance for all four children on their Spanish vocabulary knowledge. Parents in both studies saw important changes in their children's engagement in read alouds as well as in their children's communication skills.

The present study compares the patterns of growth of beginning reading skills (i.e., phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension) of Spanish speaking monolingual students who received a Tier 2 reading intervention with students who did not receive the intervention. All the students in grades K-2 were screened at the beginning of the year to confirm their risk status. A quasi-experimental longitudinal design was used: the treatment group received a supplemental program in small groups of 3 to 5 students, for 30 minutes daily from November to June. The control group did not receive it. All students were assessed three times during the academic year. A hierarchical linear growth modeling was conducted and differences on growth rate were found in vocabulary in kindergarten (p< .001; variance explained = 77.0%), phonemic awareness in kindergarten (p< .001; variance explained = 43.7%) and first grade (p< .01; variance explained = 15.2%), and finally we also find significant growth differences for second grade in oral reading fluency (p< .05; variance explained = 15.1%) and retell task (p< .05; variance explained = 14.5%). Children at risk for reading disabilities in Spanish can improve their skills when they receive explicit instruction in the context of Response to Intervention (RtI). Findings are discussed for each skill in the context of implementing a Tier 2 small group intervention within an RtI approach. Implications for practice in the Spanish educational context are also discussed for children who are struggling with reading.

In this single-case design study, we examined the effects of an adapted dialogic reading intervention on the oral language and vocabulary skills of four Latino preschool children who were at risk for English language delays. We used adapted dialogic reading strategies in English and two literacy games that included a rapid naming activity and playing with props to retell the stories in the books. Results indicated improvement in both oral language and vocabulary skill knowledge from baseline to intervention for all children. Children also showed improvement from baseline to intervention in their story retells during generalization probes. Limitations and implications for future research and practice are discussed.

This article reviews published experimental studies from 2000 to 2012 that evaluated the effects of providing reading interventions to English learners who were at risk for experiencing academic difficulties, including students with learning disabilities. Criteria included: (a) the study was published in a peer-referred journal, (b) the study was an intervention for English learners at risk or with a learning disability in Grades K–12, (c) data were disaggregated by English learner status if all participants were not English learners, and (d) information about fidelity of implementation was reported. Twelve studies met these criteria. Results of seven studies conducted in kindergarten and first grade indicated significant moderate-to-large effect sizes (ES range, 0.58–0.91) for interventions targeting beginning reading skills. Findings in five of the 12 studies suggested significant moderate-to-large effects in reading or listening comprehension (ES range, 0.47–2.34). The interventions in these studies included explicit instruction, and 10 used published intervention programs. Moderator variables, such as group size, minutes of intervention, and type of personnel delivering the intervention, were not significant predictors of outcomes.

We examined the criterion validity and diagnostic efficiency of oral reading fluency (ORF), word reading accuracy, and reading comprehension (RC) for students in Grades 7 and 8 taking into account form effects of ORF, time of assessment, and individual differences, including student designations of limited English proficiency and special education status. Participants were 1,481 students in Grade 7 and 1,462 in Grade 8 attending four middle schools in the Pacific Northwest. Results indicated that (a) the majority of variance in ORF is between individuals, (b) a single ORF passage appears to be equally predictive of the state assessment of reading performance as the mean or the median across three passages, (c) ORF and RC explain 55–58 % of the variance in the state assessment, and (d) a combination of ORF and RC leads to more accurate diagnosis of students who might be at risk for not passing the state assessment than either measure alone. Word reading accuracy contributes little to the prediction of state test scores or risk status. Implications for practice and future research are addressed.

This longitudinal study examined the effects of a paired bilingual program and an English-only reading program on English reading outcomes for Spanish-speaking English learners (ELs) in first, second, and third grades. Participants were 214 ELs enrolled in first grade in 12 high-poverty, low-achieving schools at the beginning of the study. Results of piecewise growth modeling analysis indicated that ELs in the paired bilingual group made more growth on oral reading fluency in English than ELs in the English-only group across all grades. Conversely, regression analysis revealed that the difference in reading comprehension outcomes between these two groups was not statistically significant in first and third grades, independent of risk category, whereas in second-grade, at-risk ELs in the paired bilingual group had statistically significant higher scores in reading comprehension than ELs in the English-only group ( d = + 0.51). In general, ELs at risk for reading difficulties appeared to benefit more from the paired bilingual program than ELs with moderate or low-risk for reading difficulties. Implications of findings to advance theory and practice on the most effective program to teach reading to ELs are discussed.

This study examined the impact of a 15-min daily explicit vocabulary intervention in Spanish on expressive and receptive vocabulary knowledge and oral reading fluency in Spanish, and on language proficiency in English. Fifty Spanish-speaking English learners who received 90 min of Spanish reading instruction in an early transition model were randomly assigned to a treatment group (Vocabulary Enhanced Systematic and Explicit Teaching Routines [VE-SETR]) or a comparison group that received general vocabulary instruction using the standard reading curriculum with general strategies designed to increase the explicitness of instruction (General Systematic and Explicit Teaching Routines). Results indicated a statistically significant difference in depth of student Spanish vocabulary knowledge favoring the VE-SETR group. Differences on language proficiency in English, general vocabulary knowledge in Spanish, and oral reading fluency in Spanish were not statistically significant. Implications for future research are discussed.

The main aim of this study is to provide an overview of monitoring progress within a Response to Intervention model (Tier-2, small group intervention) used in the Canary Islands. This programme is conducted within the framework of a scientific cooperation agreement between the University of La Laguna research team “Dificultades de aprendizaje, psicolingüística y nuevas tecnologías” (“Problems in learning, psycholinguistics, and the new technologies”), the University of Oregon’s Center on Teaching and Learning, and the Consejería de Educación, Universidades y Sostenibilidad of the Canary Islands Government. The Indicadores Dinámicos del Éxito Lector is used for monitoring progress. The Indicadores Dinámicos del Éxito Lector is the Spanish version of Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills. Its main purpose is to evaluate reading progress in students identified as “at risk” of developing reading difficulties using an Response to Intervention model.

El objetivo principal de este trabajo es dar a conocer el sistema de evaluación del progreso de aprendizaje en lectura dentro de un modelo de Respuesta a la Intervención - Nivel 2 de intervención que se viene utilizando en la Comunidad Autónoma de Canarias en el marco institucional de cooperación científica entre el grupo de investigación de la Universidad de La Laguna “Dificultades de aprendizaje, psicolingüística y nuevas tecnologías”, el Center on Teaching and Learning de la Universidad de Oregon y la Consejería de Educación, Universidades y Sostenibilidad del Gobierno de Canarias. Dentro de este contexto se viene utilizando el sistema de evaluación Indicadores Dinámicos del Éxito en la Lectura, versión española del Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills. Su principal finalidad es evaluar el progreso de aprendizaje de la población escolar canaria identificada con “riesgo” de presentar dificultades específicas de aprendizaje en lectura y que participa en un Modelo de Respuesta a la Intervención.

This article reviews the research on and provides a framework for integrating assessment and early reading instruction in a unified tiered approach that includes English language learners (ELLs). The authors begin with a review of the research for implementing the guiding principles of the tiered framework with ELLs, including (a) screening and progress monitoring for ELLs, (b) delivering explicit and systematic reading instruction for ELLs, and (c) structuring reading instruction within a multitiered approach.

The purposes of this study were to (a) examine the developmental patterns in pseudoword reading and oral reading fluency in Spanish and English for Spanish-speaking English learners (ELs) in grades 1–3, and (b) investigate whether initial status and growth rates in reading fluency in Spanish and English, significantly predicted reading comprehension within languages and across languages. Participants were 173 Spanish-speaking ELs in first grade, 156 ELs in second grade, and 142 ELs in third grade across four schools providing a paired bilingual reading program. Results of hierarchical linear modeling indicated different patterns of reading growth in Spanish and English across measures and across grades. ELs at the beginning of first grade had higher scores on pseudoword reading in Spanish than in English and had a higher rate of growth on Spanish pseudoword reading. In second and third grades, initial scores on oral reading fluency were comparable in both languages, but oral reading fluency growth rates were higher in English than in Spanish. Results from regression and path analysis indicated that student initial scores and growth on reading fluency were strong and direct predictors of their reading comprehension within the same language, but not across different languages.

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the vocabulary development and promising, evidence-based vocabulary interventions for English learners (ELs) from preschool through second grade. To achieve this purpose, we have taken six steps. First, we describe the elements of language development in the native language (L1) and a second language (L2) and how these elements relate to three phases of reading development (i.e., the prereading phase, the learning to read phase, and the reading to learn phase). We contend that in order for ELs to succeed in school, they need a strong language foundation prior to entering kindergarten. This language foundation needs to continue developing during the "learning to read" and "reading to learn" phases. Second, we describe the limitations of current practice in preschool for ELs related to vocabulary instruction and to family involvement to support children's language development. Third, we report curricular challenges faced by ELs in early elementary school, and we relate these challenges to the increase in reading and language demands outlined in the Common Core State Standards (CCSS). Specific language activities that can help meet some of the demands are provided in a table. Fourth, we synthesize the research on evidence-based vocabulary instruction and intervention and discuss implications for practice with ELs. Fifth, we describe two intervention projects under development that have the potential to improve EL vocabulary and language proficiency in the early grades. We conclude with a summary of the chapter and provide additional resources on the topic.

The purpose of this chapter is to describe the vocabulary development and promising, evidence-based vocabulary interventions for English learners (ELs) from preschool through second grade. To achieve this purpose, we have taken six steps. First, we describe the elements of language development in the native language (L1) and a second language (L2) and how these elements relate to three phases of reading development (i.e., the prereading phase, the learning to read phase, and the reading to learn phase). We contend that in order for ELs to succeed in school, they need a strong language foundation prior to entering kindergarten. This language foundation needs to continue developing during the “learning to read” and “reading to learn” phases. Second, we describe the limitations of current practice in preschool for ELs related to vocabulary instruction and to family involvement to support children's language development. Third, we report curricular challenges faced by ELs in early elementary school, and we relate these challenges to the increase in reading and language demands outlined in the Common Core State Standards (CCSS). Specific language activities that can help meet some of the demands are provided in a table. Fourth, we synthesize the research on evidence-based vocabulary instruction and intervention and discuss implications for practice with ELs. Fifth, we describe two intervention projects under development that have the potential to improve EL vocabulary and language proficiency in the early grades. We conclude with a summary of the chapter and provide additional resources on the topic.

This study analyzes the effect of initial status and growth in Spanish pseudoword reading in kindergarten and first grade on reading comprehension in Spanish at the end of first grade. One hundred and sixty-eight Spanish-speaking English learners who were learning to read in Spanish and English in the United States participated in the study. Results of hierarchical linear modeling indicate that students grew, on average, by 95 letter-sounds in Spanish from the middle of kindergarten to the end of first grade. Structural equation modeling indicated that 53% of the variance in Spanish reading comprehension at the end of first grade was explained by Spanish initial status on pseudoword reading, Spanish kindergarten overall reading performance, and growth in Spanish pseudoword reading. Findings are important in a Response to Intervention approach where screening and progress monitoring of pseudoword reading helps educators determine the level of support beginning readers need to acquire the alphabetic principle, an important skill that contributes substantially to Spanish reading comprehension.

Schools implement Response to Intervention (Rtl) for two major purposes. The first is to provide a coordinated system of high-quality instruction and intervention for all students in the school (Burns & Vanderheyden, 2006; Haager, Klinger, & Vaughn, 2007; National Association of State Directors of Special Education, 2006). This system can be envisioned as a framework of effective instruction to prevent academic problems from occurring and effective interventions to address problems that do occur in a timely and appropriate manner. The system is integrated and coordinated to support all students to reach primary learning objectives (Fuchs, Fuchs, & Zumeta, 2008; Greenwood, Kratochwill, & Clements, 2008). The second purpose of Rtl is to diagnose specific learning disabilities (SLD) in students who do not respond adequately to instruction and intervention (O'Conner, 2007; Reynolds & Shaywitz, 2009; Torgesen, 1997, 2004). Strong empirical evidence supports the prevention and intervention purpose of Rtl (Baker et al., 2008; Gersten et al., 2009; Greenwood, Kratochwill, & Clements, 2008; Vaughn & Fuchs, 2006), but evidence for using Rtl for SLD determination is lacking (Fuchs, Mock, Morgan, & Young, 2003; Reynolds & Shaywitz, 2009).