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Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells have made a tremendous impact in the clinic, but potent signaling through the CAR can be detrimental to treatment safety and efficacy. The use of protein degradation to control CAR signaling can address these issues in preclinical models. Existing strategies for regulating CAR stability rely on small molecules to induce systemic degradation. In contrast to small molecule regulation, genetic circuits offer a more precise method to control CAR signaling in an autonomous cell-by-cell fashion. Here, we describe a programmable protein degradation tool that adopts the framework of bioPROTACs, heterobifunctional proteins that are composed of a target recognition domain fused to a domain that recruits the endogenous ubiquitin proteasome system. We develop novel bioPROTACs that utilize a compact four-residue degron and demonstrate degradation of cytosolic and membrane protein targets using either a nanobody or synthetic leucine zipper as a protein binder. Our bioPROTACs exhibit potent degradation of CARs and can inhibit CAR signaling in primary human T cells. We demonstrate the utility of our bioPROTACs by constructing a genetic circuit to degrade the tyrosine kinase ZAP70 in response to recognition of a specific membrane-bound antigen. This circuit can disrupt CAR T cell signaling only in the presence of a specific cell population. These results suggest that bioPROTACs are powerful tools for expanding the CAR T cell engineering toolbox.

Degrons are minimal protein features that are sufficient to target proteins for degradation. In most cases, degrons allow recognition by components of the cytosolic ubiquitin proteasome system. Currently, all of the identified degrons only function within the cytosol. Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we identified the first short linear sequences that function as degrons from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen. We show that when these degrons are transferred to proteins, they facilitate proteasomal degradation through the endoplasmic reticulum associated degradation (ERAD) system. These degrons enable degradation of both luminal and integral membrane ER proteins, expanding the types of proteins that can be targeted for degradation in budding yeast and mammalian tissue culture. This discovery provides a framework to target proteins for degradation from the previously unreachable ER lumen and builds toward therapeutic approaches that exploit the highly conserved ERAD system.

Targeted protein degradation, with its rapid protein depletion kinetics, allows the measurement of acute changes in the cell. The auxin-inducible degron (AID) system, rapidly degrades AID-tagged proteins only in the presence of auxin. The AID system being inducible makes the study of essential genes and dynamic processes like cell differentiation, cell cycle and genome organization feasible. The AID degradation system has been adapted to yeast, protozoans, C. elegans, Drosophila, zebrafish, mouse and mammalian cell lines. Using the AID system, researchers have unveiled novel functions for essential proteins at developmental stages that were previously difficult to investigate due to early lethality. This comprehensive review discusses the development, advancements, applications and drawbacks of the AID system and compares it with other available protein degradation systems.

Specificity of the ubiquitin-proteasome system depends on E3 ligase-substrate interactions. Many such pairings depend on E3 ligases binding to peptide-like sequences - termed N- or C-degrons - at the termini of substrates. However, our knowledge of structural features distinguishing closely related C-degron substrate-E3 pairings is limited. Here, by systematically comparing ubiquitylation activities towards a suite of common model substrates, and defining interactions by biochemistry, crystallography, and cryo-EM, we reveal principles of C-degron recognition across the KLHDCX family of Cullin-RING ligases (CRLs). First, a motif common across these E3 ligases anchors a substrate's C-terminus. However, distinct locations of this C-terminus anchor motif in different blades of the KLHDC2, KLHDC3, and KLHDC10 β-propellers establishes distinct relative positioning and molecular environments for substrate C-termini. Second, our structural data show KLHDC3 has a pre-formed pocket establishing preference for an Arg or Gln preceding a C-terminal Gly, whereas conformational malleability contributes to KLHDC10's recognition of varying features adjacent to substrate C-termini. Finally, additional non-consensus interactions, mediated by C-degron binding grooves and/or by distal propeller surfaces and substrate globular domains, can substantially impact substrate binding and ubiquitylatability. Overall, the data reveal combinatorial mechanisms determining specificity and plasticity of substrate recognition by KLDCX-family C-degron E3 ligases., Competing Interests: Competing interests D.C.S. and B.A.S. are co-inventors of intellectual property that is unrelated to this work (DCN1 inhibitors licensed to Cinsano). J.W.H. is a founder and consultant for Caraway Therapeutics and is a scientific advisory board member for Lyterian Therapeutics. SJE is a founder of, and holds equity in TScan Therapeutics and Immune ID. S.J.E. is also founder of MAZE Therapeutics, and Mirimus and serves on the scientific advisory board of TSCAN Therapeutics, and MAZE Therapeutics. In accordance with Partners HealthCare’s conflict of interest policies, the Partners Office for Interactions with Industry has reviewed SJE’s financial interest in TSCAN and determined that it creates no significant risk to the welfare of participants in this study or to the integrity of this research. B.A.S. is a member of the scientific advisory boards of Biotheryx and Proxygen. The remaining authors declare no competing interests., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Degrons are minimal protein features that are sufficient to target proteins for degradation. In most cases, degrons allow recognition by components of the cytosolic ubiquitin proteasome system. Currently, all of the identified degrons only function within the cytosol. Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae , we identified the first short linear sequences that function as degrons from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) lumen. We show that when these degrons are transferred to proteins, they facilitate proteasomal degradation through the endoplasmic reticulum associated degradation (ERAD) system. These degrons enable degradation of both luminal and integral membrane ER proteins, expanding the types of proteins that can be targeted for degradation in budding yeast and mammalian tissue culture. This discovery provides a framework to target proteins for degradation from the previously unreachable ER lumen and builds toward therapeutic approaches that exploit the highly conserved ERAD system., Competing Interests: RS, RB has filed a patent application (PCT/US2024/011152) related to the use of this technology for targeted protein degradation, JH, DD No competing interests declared, (© 2023, Sharninghausen, Hwang et al.)

Antizyme (AZ) is a regulatory protein that plays a crucial role in modulating the activity of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), which is the initial and rate-limiting enzyme in the complex pathway of polyamine biosynthesis. AZ facilitates the swift degradation of ODC, thereby modulating the levels of cellular polyamines. This study unveils a new ubiquitin-independent mechanism for AZ degradation, emphasizing the essential role of N-terminal degrons. Contrary to traditional ubiquitin-dependent degradation, our findings reveal that AZ degradation is significantly influenced by its N-terminal region. By conducting a series of experiments, including in vitro degradation assays, cycloheximide chase experiments, differential scanning calorimetry, and measurement of cellular concentrations of polyamines, we demonstrate that N-terminal truncation significantly enhances AZ's stability and facilitates the reduction of polyamine levels by accelerating ODC degradation. The removal of the N-terminal portion of AZ results in a reduced degradation rate and enhanced thermal stability of the protein, leading to a more efficient inhibition of polyamine synthesis. These findings are corroborated by the analysis of AZ isoforms, AZ1, AZ2, and AZ3, which display differential degradation patterns based on the specific N-terminal segments. This substantiates a degradation mechanism driven by an intrinsically disordered N-terminal region acting as a degron, independent of lysine ubiquitination. These results underscore the significant regulatory function of the N-terminal domain in the activity of AZ and the maintenance of polyamine homeostasis., (© 2024 The Protein Society.)

Background: Babesia duncani is a pathogen within the phylum Apicomplexa that causes human babesiosis. It poses a significant threat to public health, as it can be transmitted not only through tick bites but also via blood transfusion. Consequently, an understanding of the gene functions of this pathogen is necessary for the development of drugs and vaccines. However, the absence of conditional gene knockdown tools has hindered the research on this pathogen. The auxin-inducible degron (AID) system is a rapid, reversible conditional knockdown system widely used in gene function studies. Thus, there is an urgent need to establish the AID system in B. duncani to study essential gene functions., Methods: The endogenous genes of the Skp1-Cullin-F-box (SCF) complex in B. duncani were identified and confirmed through multiple sequence alignment and conserved domain analysis. The expression of the F-box protein TIR1 from Oryza sativa (OsTIR1) was achieved by constructing a transgenic parasite strain using a homologous recombination strategy. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), western blot, and indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) were used to confirm the correct monoclonal parasite strain. The degradation of enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) tagged with an AID degron was detected through western blot and live-cell fluorescence microscopy after treatment of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)., Results: In this study, Skp1, Cul1, and Rbx1 of the SCF complex in B. duncani were identified through sequence alignment and domain analysis. A pure BdTIR1 strain with expression of the OsTIR1 gene was constructed through homologous recombination and confirmed. This strain showed no significant differences from the wild type (WT) in terms of growth rate and proportions of different parasite forms. The eGFP tagged with an AID degron was successfully induced for degradation using 500 μM IAA. Grayscale analysis of western blot indicated a 61.3% reduction in eGFP expression levels, while fluorescence intensity analysis showed a 77.5% decrease in fluorescence intensity. Increasing the IAA concentration to 2 mM accelerated eGFP degradation and enhanced the extent of degradation., Conclusions: This study demonstrated the functionality of the AID system in regulating protein levels by inducing rapid degradation of eGFP using IAA, providing an important research tool for studying essential gene functions related to invasion, egress, and virulence of B. duncani. Moreover, it also offers a construction strategy for apicomplexan parasites that have not developed an AID system., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

The Golgi apparatus is essential for protein sorting, yet its quality control mechanisms are poorly understood. Here we show that the Dsc ubiquitin ligase complex uses its rhomboid pseudo-protease subunit, Dsc2, to assess the hydrophobic length of α-helical transmembrane domains (TMDs) at the Golgi. Thereby the Dsc complex likely interacts with orphaned ER and Golgi proteins that have shorter TMDs and ubiquitinates them for targeted degradation. Some Dsc substrates will be extracted by Cdc48 for endosome and Golgi associated proteasomal degradation (EGAD), while others will undergo ESCRT dependent vacuolar degradation. Some substrates are degraded by both, EGAD- or ESCRT pathways. The accumulation of Dsc substrates entails a specific increase in glycerophospholipids with shorter and asymmetric fatty acyl chains. Hence, the Dsc complex mediates the selective degradation of orphaned proteins at the sorting center of cells, which prevents their spreading across other organelles and thereby preserves cellular membrane protein and lipid composition., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

PROTAC® (proteolysis-targeting chimera) molecules induce proximity between an E3 ligase and protein-of-interest (POI) to target the POI for ubiquitin-mediated degradation. Cooperative E3-PROTAC-POI complexes have potential to achieve neo-substrate selectivity beyond that established by POI binding to the ligand alone. Here, we extend the collection of ubiquitin ligases employable for cooperative ternary complex formation to include the C-degron E3 KLHDC2. Ligands were identified that engage the C-degron binding site in KLHDC2, subjected to structure-based improvement, and linked to JQ1 for BET-family neo-substrate recruitment. Consideration of the exit vector emanating from the ligand engaged in KLHDC2's U-shaped degron-binding pocket enabled generation of SJ46421, which drives formation of a remarkably cooperative, paralog-selective ternary complex with BRD3 BD2 . Meanwhile, screening pro-drug variants enabled surmounting cell permeability limitations imposed by acidic moieties resembling the KLHDC2-binding C-degron. Selectivity for BRD3 compared to other BET-family members is further manifested in ubiquitylation in vitro, and prodrug version SJ46420-mediated degradation in cells. Selectivity is also achieved for the ubiquitin ligase, overcoming E3 auto-inhibition to engage KLHDC2, but not the related KLHDC1, KLHDC3, or KLHDC10 E3s. In sum, our study establishes neo-substrate-specific targeted protein degradation via KLHDC2, and provides a framework for developing selective PROTAC protein degraders employing C-degron E3 ligases., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

A group of intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) are subject to 20S proteasomal degradation in a ubiquitin-independent manner. Recently, we have reported that many IDPs/IDRs are targeted to the 20S proteasome via interaction with the C-terminus of the PSMA3 subunit, termed the PSMA3 Trapper. In this study, we investigated the biological significance of the IDP-Trapper interaction using the IDP p21. Using a split luciferase reporter assay and conducting detailed p21 mutagenesis, we first identified the p21 RRLIF box, localized at the C-terminus, as mediating the Trapper interaction in cells. To demonstrate the role of this box in p21 degradation, we edited the genome of HEK293 and HeLa cell lines using a CRISPR strategy. We found that the p21 half-life increased in cells with either a deleted or mutated p21 RRLIF box. The edited cell lines displayed an aberrant cell cycle pattern under normal conditions and in response to DNA damage. Remarkably, these cells highly expressed senescence hallmark genes in response to DNA damage, highlighting that the increased p21 half-life, not its actual level, regulates senescence. Our findings suggest that the p21 RRLIF box, which mediates interactions with the PSMA3 Trapper, acts as a ubiquitin-independent degron. This degron is positioned adjacent to the previously identified ubiquitin-dependent degron, forming a dual degron module that functionally regulates p21 degradation and its physiological outcomes.

Nα-terminal acetylation in eukaryotic proteins creates specific degradation signals (Ac/N-degrons) targeted for ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis via the Ac/N-degron pathway. Despite the identification of key components of the Ac/N-degron pathway over the past 15 years, the precise recognition domain (Ac/N domain) remains unclear. Here, we defined the Ac/N domain of the endoplasmic reticulum MARCHF6 E3 ubiquitin ligase through a systematic analysis of its cytosol-facing regions using alanine-stretch mutagenesis, chemical crosslinking-based co-immunoprecipitation-immunoblotting, and split-ubiquitin assays in human and yeast cells. The Ac/N domain of MARCHF6 exhibits preferential binding specificity to Nα-terminally acetylated proteins and peptides over their unacetylated counterparts, mediating the degradation of Ac/N-degron-bearing proteins, such as the G-protein regulator RGS2 and the lipid droplet protein PLIN2. Furthermore, abolishing the recognition of Ac/N-degrons by MARCHF6 stabilized RGS2 and PLIN2, thereby increasing the resistance to ferroptosis, an iron-dependent lipid peroxidation-mediated cell death. These findings provide mechanistic and functional insights into how MARCHF6 serves as a rheostatic modulator of ferroptosis by recognizing Ac/N-degron substrates via its Ac/N domain and non-Ac/N-degron substrates via distinct recognition sites., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest with the contents of this article., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

An N-degron is a degradation signal whose main determinant is a "destabilizing" N-terminal residue of a protein. Specific N-degrons, discovered in 1986, were the first identified degradation signals in short-lived intracellular proteins. These N-degrons are recognized by a ubiquitin-dependent proteolytic system called the Arg/N-degron pathway. Although bacteria lack the ubiquitin system, they also have N-degron pathways. Studies after 1986 have shown that all 20 amino acids of the genetic code can act, in specific sequence contexts, as destabilizing N-terminal residues. Eukaryotic proteins are targeted for the conditional or constitutive degradation by at least five N-degron systems that differ both functionally and mechanistically: the Arg/N-degron pathway, the Ac/N-degron pathway, the Pro/N-degron pathway, the fMet/N-degron pathway, and the newly named, in this perspective, GASTC/N-degron pathway (GASTC = Gly, Ala, Ser, Thr, Cys). I discuss these systems and the expanded terminology that now encompasses the entire gamut of known N-degron pathways., Competing Interests: Competing interests statement:The author declares no competing interest.

Protein degradation through the ubiquitin proteasome system at the spatial and temporal regulation is essential for many cellular processes. E3 ligases and degradation signals (degrons), the sequences they recognize in the target proteins, are key parts of the ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis, and their interactions determine the degradation specificity and maintain cellular homeostasis. To date, only a limited number of targeted degron instances have been identified, and their properties are not yet fully characterized. To tackle on this challenge, here we develop a novel deep-learning framework, namely MetaDegron, for predicting E3 ligase targeted degron by integrating the protein language model and comprehensive featurization strategies. Through extensive evaluations using benchmark datasets and comparison with existing method, such as Degpred, we demonstrate the superior performance of MetaDegron. Among functional features, MetaDegron allows batch prediction of targeted degrons of 21 E3 ligases, and provides functional annotations and visualization of multiple degron-related structural and physicochemical features. MetaDegron is freely available at http://modinfor.com/MetaDegron/. We anticipate that MetaDegron will serve as a useful tool for the clinical and translational community to elucidate the mechanisms of regulation of protein homeostasis, cancer research, and drug development., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press.)

BIG/DARK OVEREXPRESSION OF CAB1/TRANSPORT INHIBITOR RESPONSE3 is a 0.5 MDa protein associated with multiple functions in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) signaling and development. However, the biochemical functions of BIG are unknown. We investigated a role for BIG in the Arg/N-degron pathways, in which substrate protein fate is influenced by the N-terminal residue. We crossed a big loss-of-function allele to 2 N-degron pathway E3 ligase mutants, proteolysis6 (prt6) and prt1, and examined the stability of protein substrates. Stability of model substrates was enhanced in prt6-1 big-2 and prt1-1 big-2 relative to the respective single mutants, and the abundance of the PRT6 physiological substrates, HYPOXIA-RESPONSIVE ERF2 (HRE2) and VERNALIZATION2 (VRN2), was similarly increased in prt6 big double mutants. Hypoxia marker expression was enhanced in prt6 big double mutants; this constitutive response required arginyl transferase activity and RAP-type Group VII ethylene response factor (ERFVII) transcription factors. Transcriptomic analysis of roots not only demonstrated increased expression of multiple hypoxia-responsive genes in the double mutant relative to prt6, but also revealed other roles for PRT6 and BIG, including regulation of suberin deposition through both ERFVII-dependent and independent mechanisms, respectively. Our results show that BIG acts together with PRT6 to regulate the hypoxia-response and broader processes in Arabidopsis., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest statement. None declared., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of American Society of Plant Biologists.)

Proteome composition is dynamic and influenced by many internal and external cues, including developmental signals, light availability, or environmental stresses. Protein degradation, in synergy with protein biosynthesis, allows cells to respond to various stimuli and adapt by reshaping the proteome. Protein degradation mediates the final and irreversible disassembly of proteins, which is important for protein quality control and to eliminate misfolded or damaged proteins, as well as entire organelles. Consequently, it contributes to cell resilience by buffering against protein or organellar damage caused by stresses. Moreover, protein degradation plays important roles in cell signaling, as well as transcriptional and translational events. The intricate task of recognizing specific proteins for degradation is achieved by specialized systems that are tailored to the substrate's physicochemical properties and subcellular localization. These systems recognize diverse substrate cues collectively referred to as "degrons," which can assume a range of configurations. They are molecular surfaces recognized by E3 ligases of the ubiquitin-proteasome system but can also be considered as general features recognized by other degradation systems, including autophagy or even organellar proteases. Here we provide an overview of the newest developments in the field, delving into the intricate processes of protein recognition and elucidating the pathways through which they are recruited for degradation., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest statement. None declared., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of American Society of Plant Biologists. All rights reserved. For commercial re-use, please contact reprints@oup.com for reprints and translation rights for reprints. All other permissions can be obtained through our RightsLink service via the Permissions link on the article page on our site—for further information please contact journals.permissions@oup.com.)

The development of new technologies opens new avenues in the research field. Gene knockout is a key method for analyzing gene function in mice. Currently, conditional gene knockout strategies are employed to examine temporal and spatial gene function. However, phenotypes are sometimes not observed because of the time required for depletion due to the long half-life of the target proteins. Protein knockdown using an improved auxin-inducible degron system, AID2, overcomes such difficulties owing to rapid and efficient target depletion. We observed depletion of AID-tagged proteins within a few to several hours by a simple intraperitoneal injection of the auxin analog, 5-Ph-IAA, which is much shorter than the time required for target depletion using conditional gene knockout. Importantly, the loss of protein is reversible, making protein knockdown useful to measure the effects of transient loss of protein function. Here, we also established several mouse lines useful for AID2-medicated protein knockdown, which include knock-in mouse lines in the ROSA26 locus; one expresses TIR1(F74G), and the other is the reporter expressing AID-mCherry. We also established a germ-cell-specific TIR1 line and confirmed the protein knockdown specificity. In addition, we introduced an AID tag to an endogenous protein, DCP2 via the CAS9-mediated gene editing method. We confirmed that the protein was effectively eliminated by TIR1(F74G), which resulted in the similar phenotype observed in knockout mouse within 20 h., (© 2024 The Author(s). Development, Growth & Differentiation published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of Japanese Society of Developmental Biologists.)

Acute protein knockdown is a powerful approach to dissecting protein function in dynamic cellular processes. We previously reported an improved auxin-inducible degron system, AID2, but recently noted that its ability to induce degradation of some essential replication factors, such as ORC1 and CDC6, was not enough to induce lethality. Here, we present combinational degron technologies to control two proteins or enhance target depletion. For this purpose, we initially compare PROTAC-based degrons, dTAG and BromoTag, with AID2 to reveal their key features and then demonstrate control of cohesin and condensin with AID2 and BromoTag, respectively. We develop a double-degron system with AID2 and BromoTag to enhance target depletion and accelerate depletion kinetics and demonstrate that both ORC1 and CDC6 are pivotal for MCM loading. Finally, we show that co-depletion of ORC1 and CDC6 by the double-degron system completely suppresses DNA replication, and the cells enter mitosis with single-chromatid chromosomes, indicating that DNA replication is uncoupled from cell cycle control. Our combinational degron technologies will expand the application scope for functional analyses., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

The C-terminal to LisH (CTLH) complex is a ubiquitin ligase complex that recognizes substrates with Pro/N-degrons via its substrate receptor Glucose-Induced Degradation 4 (GID4), but its function and substrates in humans remain unclear. Here, we report PFI-7, a potent, selective and cell-active chemical probe that antagonizes Pro/N-degron binding to human GID4. Use of PFI-7 in proximity-dependent biotinylation and quantitative proteomics enabled the identification of GID4 interactors and GID4-regulated proteins. GID4 interactors are enriched for nucleolar proteins, including the Pro/N-degron-containing RNA helicases DDX21 and DDX50. We also identified a distinct subset of proteins whose cellular levels are regulated by GID4 including HMGCS1, a Pro/N-degron-containing metabolic enzyme. These data reveal human GID4 Pro/N-degron targets regulated through a combination of degradative and nondegradative functions. Going forward, PFI-7 will be a valuable research tool for investigating CTLH complex biology and facilitating development of targeted protein degradation strategies that highjack CTLH E3 ligase activity., (© 2024. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature America, Inc.)

RNA degradation in mammalian cells is performed by multiple enzymes and cofactors making it difficult to identify the specific impact of each of them separately. The auxin-inducible degron system enables direct depletion of a protein of interest limiting the time of depletion and thus reducing secondary effects due to cell adaptation. In this chapter, using XRN1 as an example of cytoplasmic RNA decay enzyme, we describe a combination of methods to introduce the auxin-inducible degron by CRISPR-Cas9, together with downstream analyses of RNA levels after protein depletion., (© 2025. The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.)

N-degrons are short sequences located at protein N-terminus that mediate the interaction of E3 ligases (E3s) with substrates to promote their proteolysis. It is well established that N-degrons can be exposed following protease cleavage to allow recognition by E3s. However, our knowledge regarding how proteases and E3s cooperate in protein quality control mechanisms remains minimal. Using a systematic approach to monitor the protein stability of an N-terminome library, we found that proline residue at the third N-terminal position (hereafter "P+3") promotes instability. Genetic perturbations identified the dipeptidyl peptidases DPP8 and DPP9 and the primary E3s of N-degron pathways, UBR proteins, as regulators of P+3 bearing substrate turnover. Interestingly, P+3 UBR substrates are significantly enriched for secretory proteins. We found that secretory proteins relying on a signal peptide (SP) for their targeting contain a "built-in" N-degron within their SP. This degron becomes exposed by DPP8/9 upon translocation failure to the designated compartments, thus enabling clearance of mislocalized proteins by UBRs to maintain proteostasis., (© 2024 Shimshon et al.)

To assess the immediate responses of the yeast cells to telomere defects, we employed the auxin-inducible degron (AID) enabling rapid depletion of essential (Rap1, Tbf1, Cdc13, Stn1) and non-essential (Est1, Est2, Est3) telomeric proteins. Using two variants of AID systems, we show that most of the studied proteins are depleted within 10-30 min after the addition of auxin. As expected, depletion of essential proteins yields nondividing cells, provided that the strains are cultivated in an appropriate carbon source and at temperatures lower than 28°C. Cells with depleted Cdc13 and Stn1 exhibit extension of the single-stranded overhang as early as 3 h after addition of auxin. Notably, prolonged incubation of strains carrying AID-tagged essential proteins in the presence of auxin resulted in the appearance of auxin-resistant clones, caused at least in part by mutations within the OsTIR1 gene. Upon assessing the length of telomeres in strains carrying AID-tagged non-essential telomeric proteins, we found that the depletion of Est1 and Est3 leads to auxin-dependent telomere shortening. However, the EST3-AID strain had slightly shorter telomeres even in the absence of auxin. Furthermore, a strain with the AID-tagged version of Est2 (catalytic subunit of telomerase) not only had shorter telomeres in the absence of auxin but also did not exhibit auxin-dependent telomere shortening. Our results demonstrate that while AID can be useful in assessing immediate cellular responses to telomere deprotection, each strain must be carefully evaluated for the effect of AID-tag on the properties of the protein of interest., (© 2024 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The ankyrin (ANK) SOCS box (ASB) family, encompassing ASB1-18, is the largest group of substrate receptors of cullin 5 Ring E3 ubiquitin ligase. Nonetheless, the mechanism of substrate recognition by ASB family proteins has remained largely elusive. Here we present the crystal structure of ASB7-Elongin B-Elongin C ternary complex bound to a conserved helical degron. ASB7 employs its ANK3-6 to form an extended groove, effectively interacting with the internal α-helix-degron through a network of side-chain-mediated electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions. Our structural findings, combined with biochemical and cellular analyses, identify the key residues of the degron motif and ASB7 required for their recognition. This will facilitate the identification of additional physiological substrates of ASB7 by providing a defined degron motif for screening. Furthermore, the structural insights provide a basis for the rational design of compounds that can specifically target ASB7 by disrupting its interaction with its cognate degron., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

TRIM7 is a ubiquitin E3 ligase with key regulatory functions, mediating viral infection, tumor biology, innate immunity, and cellular processes, such as autophagy and ferroptosis. It contains a PRYSPRY domain that specifically recognizes degron sequences containing C-terminal glutamine. Ligands that bind to the TRIM7 PRYSPRY domain may have applications in the treatment of viral infections, as modulators of inflammation, and in the design of a new class of PROTACs (PROteolysis TArgeting Chimeras) that mediate the selective degradation of therapeutically relevant proteins (POIs). Here, we developed an assay toolbox for the comprehensive evaluation of TRIM7 ligands. Using TRIM7 degron sequences together with a structure-based design, we developed the first series of peptidomimetic ligands with low micromolar affinity. The terminal carboxylate moiety was required for ligand activity but prevented cell penetration. A prodrug strategy using an ethyl ester resulted in enhanced permeability, which was evaluated using confocal imaging.

Targeted protein degradation (TPD), employing proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs) composed of ligands for both a target protein and ubiquitin ligase (E3) to redirect the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) to the target protein, has emerged as a promising strategy in drug discovery. However, despite the vast number of E3 ligases, the repertoire of E3 ligands utilized in PROTACs remains limited. Here, we report the discovery of a small-molecule degron with a phenylpropionic acid skeleton, derived from a known ligand of S-phase kinase-interacting protein 2 (Skp2), an E3 ligase. We used this degron to design PROTACs inducing proteasomal degradation of HaloTag-fused proteins, and identified key structural relationships. Surprisingly, our mechanistic studies excluded the involvement of Skp2, suggesting that this degron recruits other protein(s) within the UPS., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

The C-terminal residues of proteins can function as degrons recognized by ubiquitin ligases for proteasomal degradation. Kelch domain-containing protein 3 (KLHDC3) is a substrate receptor for E3 ubiquitin ligase (Cullin2-RING ligase) that targets the C-terminal degrons. UL49.5 is 96 amino-acid type 1 transmembrane protein from bovine herpesvirus 1. Herpesviruses have evolved highly effective strategies to evade the antiviral immune response. One of these strategies is inhibition of the antigen processing and presentation pathway by MHC I, thereby reducing the presentation of the antigenic peptides on the surface of the infected cell. Recently, it has been demonstrated that UL49.5 triggers TAP degradation via recruiting the E3 ubiquitin ligase to TAP. Moreover, the mutagenesis revealed that the mutations within the UL49.5 C-degron sequence ( 93 RGRG 96 ) affect binding of UL49.5 to KLHDC3. In this work the molecular dynamics of KLHDC3 in complexes with the C-terminal decapeptide of the herpesviral protein UL4.95 and its three mutants has been employed to provide a framework for understanding molecular recognition of UL49.5 by KLHDC3. The findings of this study give insights into the interactions of the various degrons with KLHDC3. During the molecular dynamics, an active RGKG mutant adopts a conformation similar to that of the wild type decapeptide, whereas the conformations of two inactive mutants, KGRG and RGRD are significantly different. Both R93K and G96D mutations impair the interactions of the C-terminal glycine with KLHDC3. The findings of this study expand the existing knowledge about the mechanism of protein recognition by Cullin2-RING ligases thus contributing to the design of antiviral and anticancer drugs that can selectively promote or inhibit degradation of the proteins of interest., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

E3 ubiquitin ligases recognize substrates through their short linear motifs termed degrons. While degron-signaling has been a subject of extensive study, resources for its systematic screening are limited. To bridge this gap, we developed DEGRONOPEDIA, a web server that searches for degrons and maps them to nearby residues that can undergo ubiquitination and disordered regions, which may act as protein unfolding seeds. Along with an evolutionary assessment of degron conservation, the server also reports on post-translational modifications and mutations that may modulate degron availability. Acknowledging the prevalence of degrons at protein termini, DEGRONOPEDIA incorporates machine learning to assess N-/C-terminal stability, supplemented by simulations of proteolysis to identify degrons in newly formed termini. An experimental validation of a predicted C-terminal destabilizing motif, coupled with the confirmation of a post-proteolytic degron in another case, exemplifies its practical application. DEGRONOPEDIA can be freely accessed at degronopedia.com., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Nucleic Acids Research.)

The N-degron pathway determines the half-life of proteins by selectively destabilizing the proteins bearing N-degrons. N-terminal glutamine amidohydrolase 1 (NTAQ1) plays an essential role in the arginine N-degron (Arg/N-degron) pathway as an initializing enzyme via the deamidation of the N-terminal (Nt) glutamine (Gln). However, the Nt-serine-bound conformation of hNTAQ1 according to the previously identified crystal structure suggests the possibility of other factors influencing the recognition of Nt residues by hNTAQ1. Hence, in the current study, we aimed to further elucidate the substrate recognition of hNTAQ1; specifically, we explored 12 different substrate-binding conformations of hNTAQ1 depending on the subsequent residue of Nt-Gln. Results revealed that hNTAQ1 primarily interacts with the protein Nt backbone, instead of the side chain, for substrate recognition. Here, we report that the Nt backbone of proteins appears to be a key component of hNTAQ1 function and is the main determinant of substrate recognition. Moreover, not all second residues from Nt-Gln, but rather distinctive and charged residues, appeared to aid in detecting substrate recognition. These new findings define the substrate-recognition process of hNTAQ1 and emphasize the importance of the subsequent Gln residue in the Nt-Gln degradation system. Our extensive structural and biochemical analyses provide insights into the substrate specificity of the N-degron pathway and shed light on the mechanism underlying hNTAQ1 substrate recognition. An improved understanding of the protein degradation machinery could aid in developing therapies to promote overall health through enhanced protein regulation, such as targeted protein therapies., (© 2024 The Author(s). Protein Science published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of The Protein Society.)

Mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) senses changes in nutrient status and stimulates the autophagic process to recycle amino acids. However, the impact of nutrient stress on protein degradation beyond autophagic turnover is incompletely understood. We report that several metabolic enzymes are proteasomal targets regulated by mTOR activity based on comparative proteome degradation analysis. In particular, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG)-coenzyme A (CoA) synthase 1 (HMGCS1), the initial enzyme in the mevalonate pathway, exhibits the most significant half-life adaptation. Degradation of HMGCS1 is regulated by the C-terminal to LisH (CTLH) E3 ligase through the Pro/N-degron motif. HMGCS1 is ubiquitylated on two C-terminal lysines during mTORC1 inhibition, and efficient degradation of HMGCS1 in cells requires a muskelin adaptor. Importantly, modulating HMGCS1 abundance has a dose-dependent impact on cell proliferation, which is restored by adding a mevalonate intermediate. Overall, our unbiased degradomics study provides new insights into mTORC1 function in cellular metabolism: mTORC1 regulates the stability of limiting metabolic enzymes through the ubiquitin system., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests The authors declare no competing interests., (Published by Elsevier Inc.)

The duration of the transcription-repression cycles that give rise to mammalian circadian rhythms is largely determined by the stability of the PERIOD (PER) protein, the rate-limiting components of the molecular clock. The degradation of PERs is tightly regulated by multisite phosphorylation by casein kinase 1 (CK1δ/ε). In this phosphoswitch, phosphorylation of a PER2 degron [degron 2 (D2)] causes degradation, while phosphorylation of the PER2 familial advanced sleep phase (FASP) domain blocks CK1 activity on the degron, stabilizing PER2. However, this model and many other studies of PER2 degradation do not include the second degron of PER2 that is conserved in PER1, termed degron 1 (D1). We examined how these two degrons contribute to PER2 stability, affect the balance of the phosphoswitch, and how they are differentiated by CK1. Using PER2-luciferase fusions and real-time luminometry, we investigated the contribution of both D2 and of CK1-PER2 binding. We find that D1, like D2, is a substrate of CK1 but that D1 plays only a 'backup' role in PER2 degradation. Notably, CK1 bound to a PER1:PER2 dimer protein can phosphorylate PER1 D1 in trans. This scaffolded phosphorylation provides additional levels of control to PER stability and circadian rhythms., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest The authors declare no conflicts of interest with the contents of this article., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The Lon AAA+ protease (LonA) is a ubiquitous ATP-dependent proteolytic machine, which selectively degrades damaged proteins or native proteins carrying exposed motifs (degrons). Here we characterize the structural basis for substrate recognition and discrimination by the N-terminal domain (NTD) of LonA. The results reveal that the six NTDs are attached to the hexameric LonA chamber by flexible linkers such that the formers tumble independently of the latter. Further spectral analyses show that the NTD selectively interacts with unfolded proteins, protein aggregates, and degron-tagged proteins by two hydrophobic patches of its N-lobe, but not intrinsically disordered substrate, α-casein. Moreover, the NTD selectively binds to protein substrates when they are thermally induced to adopt unfolded conformations. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that NTDs enable LonA to perform protein quality control to selectively degrade proteins in damaged states and suggest that substrate discrimination and selective degradation by LonA are mediated by multiple NTD interactions.

Schinzel-Giedion syndrome (SGS) is a severe multisystem disorder characterized by distinctive facial features, profound intellectual disability, refractory epilepsy, cortical visual impairment, hearing loss, and various congenital anomalies. SGS is attributed to gain-of-function (GoF) variants in the SETBP1 gene, with reported variants causing canonical SGS located within a 12 bp hotspot region encoding SETBP1 residues aa868-871 (degron). Here, we describe a case of typical SGS caused by a novel heterozygous missense variant, D874V, adjacent to the degron. The female patient was diagnosed in the neonatal period and presented with characteristic facial phenotype (midface retraction, prominent forehead, and low-set ears), bilateral symmetrical talipes equinovarus, overlapping toes, and severe bilateral hydronephrosis accompanied by congenital heart disease, consistent with canonical SGS. This is the first report of a typical SGS caused by a, SETBP1 non-degron missense variant. This case expands the genetic spectrum of SGS and provides new insights into genotype-phenotype correlations., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Bovine herpesvirus type 1 (BoHV-1) is a pathogen of cattle responsible for infectious bovine rhinotracheitis. The BoHV-1 UL49.5 is a transmembrane protein that binds to the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) and downregulates cell surface expression of the antigenic peptide complexes with the major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC-I). KLHDC3 is a kelch domain-containing protein 3 and a substrate receptor of a cullin2-RING (CRL2) E3 ubiquitin ligase. Recently, it has been identified that CRL2 KLHDC3 is responsible for UL49.5-triggered TAP degradation via a C-degron pathway and the presence of the degron sequence does not lead to the degradation of UL49.5 itself. The molecular modeling of KLHDC3 in complexes with four UL49.5 C-terminal decapeptides (one native protein and three mutants) revealed their activity to be closely correlated with the conformation which they adopt in KLHDC3 binding cleft. To analyze the interaction between UL49.5 and KLHDC3 in detail, in this work a total of 3.6 μs long molecular dynamics simulations have been performed. The complete UL49.5-KLHDC3 complexes were embedded into the fully hydrated all-atom lipid membrane model with explicit water molecules. The network of polar interactions has been proposed to be responsible for the recognition and binding of the degron in KLHDC3. The interaction network within the binding pocket appeared to be very similar between two CRL2 substrate receptors: KLHDC3 and KLHDC2., (© 2023 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

The E3 ligase-degron interaction determines the specificity of the ubiquitin‒proteasome system. We recently discovered that FEM1B, a substrate receptor of Cullin 2-RING ligase (CRL2), recognizes C-degrons containing a C-terminal proline. By solving several cryo-EM structures of CRL2 FEM1B bound to different C-degrons, we elucidate the dimeric assembly of the complex. Furthermore, we reveal distinct dimerization states of unmodified and neddylated CRL2 FEM1B to uncover the NEDD8-mediated activation mechanism of CRL2 FEM1B . Our research also indicates that, FEM1B utilizes a bipartite mechanism to recognize both the C-terminal proline and an upstream aromatic residue within the substrate. These structural findings, complemented by in vitro ubiquitination and in vivo cell-based assays, demonstrate that CRL2 FEM1B -mediated polyubiquitination and subsequent protein turnover depend on both FEM1B-degron interactions and the dimerization state of the E3 ligase complex. Overall, this study deepens our molecular understanding of how Cullin-RING E3 ligase substrate selection mediates protein turnover., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Degron tagging allows proteins of interest to be rapidly degraded, in a reversible and tuneable manner, in response to a chemical stimulus. This provides numerous opportunities for understanding disease mechanisms, modelling therapeutic interventions and constructing synthetic gene networks. In recent years, many laboratories have applied degron tagging successfully in cultured mammalian cells, spurred by rapid advances in the fields of genome editing and targeted protein degradation. In this At a Glance article, we focus on recent efforts to apply degron tagging in mouse models, discussing the distinct set of challenges and opportunities posed by the in vivo environment., Competing Interests: Competing interests The authors declare no competing or financial interests., (© 2024. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd.)

Protein degradation is a highly regulated cellular process crucial to enable the high dynamic range of the response to external and internal stimuli and to balance protein biosynthesis to maintain cell homeostasis. Within mammalian cells, hundreds of E3 ubiquitin ligases target specific protein substrates and could be repurposed for synthetic biology. Here, we present a systematic analysis of the four protein subunits of the multiprotein E3 ligase complex as scaffolds for the designed degrons. While all of them were functional, the fusion of a fragment of Skp1 with the target protein enabled the most effective degradation. Combination with heterodimerizing peptides, protease substrate sites, and chemically inducible dimerizers enabled the regulation of protein degradation. While the investigated subunits of E3 ligases showed variable degradation efficiency of the membrane and cytosolic and nuclear proteins, the bipartite SSD (SOCSbox-Skp1(ΔC111)) degron enabled fast degradation of protein targets in all tested cellular compartments, including the nucleus and plasma membrane, in different cell lines and could be chemically regulated. These subunits could be employed for research as well as for diverse applications, as demonstrated in the regulation of Cas9 and chimeric antigen receptor proteins.

Polo-like kinase 1 (PLK1), which is crucial in cell cycle regulation, is considered a promising anticancer drug target. Herein, we present the N-degron pathway-based proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC) for PLK1 degradation, targeting the Polo-box domain (PBD). We identified DD-2 as the most potent PROTAC that selectively induces PLK1 degradation in cancer cells, including HeLa and nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC), through the N-degron pathway. DD-2 exhibited significant in vitro anticancer effects, inducing G2/M arrest and apoptosis in HeLa and NSCLC cell lines. DD-2 showed significant tumor growth inhibition in a xenograft mouse model using HeLa and NSCLC cell lines, highlighting its potential in cancer treatment. Furthermore, the combination of DD-2 with tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI), osimertinib, effectively suppressed tumor growth in double-mutated H1975 cell lines, emphasizing DD-2's potential in combination cancer therapies. Collectively, this study demonstrates the potential of the N-degron pathway, especially using DD-2, for targeted cancer therapies.

The transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) is a key player in the major histocompatibility class I-restricted antigen presentation and an attractive target for immune evasion by viruses. Bovine herpesvirus 1 impairs TAP-dependent antigenic peptide transport through a two-pronged mechanism in which binding of the UL49.5 gene product to TAP both inhibits peptide transport and triggers its proteasomal degradation. How UL49.5 promotes TAP degradation has, so far, remained unknown. Here, we use high-content siRNA and genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screening to identify CLR2 KLHDC3 as the E3 ligase responsible for UL49.5-triggered TAP disposal. We propose that the C terminus of UL49.5 mimics a C-end rule degron that recruits the E3 to TAP and engages the cullin-RING E3 ligase in endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation., Competing Interests: Competing interests statement:The authors declare no competing interest.

Cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS) senses aberrant DNA during infection, cancer and inflammatory disease, and initiates potent innate immune responses through the synthesis of 2'3'-cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP) 1-7 . The indiscriminate activity of cGAS towards DNA demands tight regulatory mechanisms that are necessary to maintain cell and tissue homeostasis under normal conditions. Inside the cell nucleus, anchoring to nucleosomes and competition with chromatin architectural proteins jointly prohibit cGAS activation by genomic DNA 8-15 . However, the fate of nuclear cGAS and its role in cell physiology remains unclear. Here we show that the ubiquitin proteasomal system (UPS) degrades nuclear cGAS in cycling cells. We identify SPSB3 as the cGAS-targeting substrate receptor that associates with the cullin-RING ubiquitin ligase 5 (CRL5) complex to ligate ubiquitin onto nuclear cGAS. A cryo-electron microscopy structure of nucleosome-bound cGAS in a complex with SPSB3 reveals a highly conserved Asn-Asn (NN) minimal degron motif at the C terminus of cGAS that directs SPSB3 recruitment, ubiquitylation and cGAS protein stability. Interference with SPSB3-regulated nuclear cGAS degradation primes cells for type I interferon signalling, conferring heightened protection against infection by DNA viruses. Our research defines protein degradation as a determinant of cGAS regulation in the nucleus and provides structural insights into an element of cGAS that is amenable to therapeutic exploitation., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Ubiquitination is a fascinating post-translational modification that has received continuous attention since its discovery. In this review, we first provide a concise overview of the E3 ubiquitin ligases, delving into classification, characteristics and mechanisms of ubiquitination. We then specifically examine the ubiquitination pathways mediated by the N/C-degrons, discussing their unique features and substrate recognition mechanisms. Finally, we offer insights into the current state of development pertaining to inhibitors that target the N/C-degron pathways, as well as the promising advances in the field of PROTAC (PROteolysis TArgeting Chimeras). Overall, this review offers a comprehensive understanding of the rapidly-evolving field of ubiquitin biology., Competing Interests: Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Evolution of macromolecules could be considered as a milestone in the history of life. Nucleic acids are the long stretches of nucleotides that contain all the possible codes and information of life. On the other hand, proteins are their actual translated outcomes, or reflections of modifications in their structure that have occurred at a slow, but steady rate over a very long period of evolution. Over the years of research, biophysicists, biochemists, molecular and structural biologists have unfurled several layers of the structural convolutions in these chemical molecules; however evolutionists look over their structures through a different prism, which may or may not coincide with others. There remains a need to outline several well-known, but less discussed features of protein structures, like intrinsically disordered states, degron signals and different types of ubiquitin chains providing degradation signals, which help the cellular proteolytic machinery to identify and target the proteins towards degradation pathways. There are several important factors, which are critical for folding of proteins into their native three-dimensional conformations by the cytoplasmic chaperones; but in real time how the chaperones fold the newly synthesized polypeptide sequences into a particular three-dimensional shape within a fraction of second is still a mystery for biologists as well as mathematicians. Multiple similar unsolved or unaddressed questions need to be addressed in detail so that future line of research can dig deeper into the finer details of these structures of the proteins. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent developments in auxin-inducible degron (AID) technology have increased its popularity for chemogenetic control of proteolysis. However, generation of human AID cell lines is challenging, especially in human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). Here, we develop HiHo-AID2, a streamlined procedure for rapid, one-step generation of human cancer and hESC lines with high homozygous degron-tagging efficiency based on an optimized AID2 system and homology-directed repair enhancers. We demonstrate its application for rapid and inducible functional inactivation of twelve endogenous target proteins in five cell lines, including targets with diverse expression levels and functions in hESCs and cells differentiated from hESCs., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

The chemogenetic control of cellular protein stability using degron tags is a powerful experimental strategy in biomedical research. However, this technique requires permanent fusion of the degron to a target protein, which may interfere with the proper function of the protein. Here, we report a peptide fragment from the carboxyl terminus of ubiquitin as a cleavable linker that exhibits the slow but efficient cleavage of a degron tag via cellular deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs). We designed a fusion protein consisting of a cleavable linker and a destabilizing domain (DD), which conditionally controls the expression and release of a target protein in a ligand-induced state, allowing the free unmodified protein to perform its function. Insertion of an AGIA epitope at the carboxyl terminus of the linker made space for the DUBs to access the site to assist the cleavage reaction when the amino terminus of the target protein caused steric hindrance. The developed system, termed a cleavable degron using ubiquitin-derived linkers (c-DUB), provides robust and tunable regulation of target proteins in their native forms. The c-DUB system is a useful tool for the regulation of proteins that have terminal sites that are essential for the proper localization and function. In addition, a mechanistic investigation using proximity labeling showed that DUBs associate with the refolded DD to reverse ubiquitination, suggesting a cellular surveillance system for distinguishing the refolded DD from misfolded proteins. The c-DUB method may benefit from this machinery so that DUBs subsequently cleave the neighboring linker.

Protein degron tags have proven to be uniquely useful for the characterization of gene function. Degrons can mediate quick depletion, usually within minutes, of a protein of interest, allowing researchers to characterize cellular responses to the loss of function. To develop a general-purpose degron tool in Escherichia coli , we sought to build upon a previously characterized system of SspB-dependent inducible protein degradation. For this, we created a family of expression vectors containing a destabilized allele of SspB, capable of a rapid and nearly perfect "off-to-on" induction response. Using this system, we demonstrated excellent control over several DNA metabolism enzymes. However, other substrates did not respond to degron tagging in such an ideal manner, indicating the apparent limitations of SspB-dependent systems. Several degron-tagged proteins were degraded too slowly to be completely depleted during active growth, whereas others appeared to be completely refractory to degron-promoted degradation. Thus, only a minority of our, admittedly biased, selection of degron substrates proved to be amenable to efficient SspB-catalyzed degradation. We also uncovered an apparent stalling and/or disengagement of ClpXP from a degron-tagged allele of beta-galactosidase (beta-gal). While a degron-containing fusion peptide attached to the carboxy-terminus of beta-gal was degraded quantitatively, no reductions in beta-gal activity or concentration were detected, demonstrating an apparently novel mechanism of protease resistance. We conclude that substrate-dependent effects of the SspB system present a continued challenge to the widespread adoption of this degron system. For substrates that prove to be degradable, we provide a series of titratable SspB-expression vehicles.

Cardiac contractions and hemodynamic forces are essential for organ development and homeostasis. Control over cardiac contractions can be achieved pharmacologically or optogenetically. However, these approaches lack specificity or require direct access to the heart. Here, we compare two genetic approaches to control cardiac contractions by modulating the levels of the essential sarcomeric protein Tnnt2a in zebrafish. We first recombine a newly generated tnnt2a floxed allele using multiple lines expressing Cre under the control of cardiomyocyte-specific promoters, and show that it does not recapitulate the tnnt2a/silent heart mutant phenotype in embryos. We show that this lack of early cardiac contraction defects is due, at least in part, to the long half-life of tnnt2a mRNA, which masks the gene deletion effects until the early larval stages. We then generate an endogenous Tnnt2a-eGFP fusion line that we use together with the zGRAD system to efficiently degrade Tnnt2a in all cardiomyocytes. Using single-cell transcriptomics, we find that Tnnt2a depletion leads to cardiac phenotypes similar to those observed in tnnt2a mutants, with a loss of blood and pericardial flow-dependent cell types. Furthermore, we achieve conditional degradation of Tnnt2a-eGFP by splitting the zGRAD protein into two fragments that, when combined with the cpFRB2-FKBP system, can be reassembled upon rapamycin treatment. Thus, this Tnnt2a degradation line enables non-invasive control of cardiac contractions with high spatial and temporal specificity and will help further understand how they shape organ development and homeostasis., Competing Interests: Competing interests statement:The authors declare no competing interest.

Selective protein degradation typically involves substrate recognition via short linear motifs known as degrons. Various degrons can be found at protein termini from bacteria to mammals. While N-degrons have been extensively studied, our understanding of C-degrons is still limited. Towards a comprehensive understanding of eukaryotic C-degron pathways, here we perform an unbiased survey of C-degrons in budding yeast. We identify over 5000 potential C-degrons by stability profiling of random peptide libraries and of the yeast C‑terminome. Combining machine learning, high-throughput mutagenesis and genetic screens reveals that the SCF ubiquitin ligase targets ~40% of degrons using a single F-box substrate receptor Das1. Although sequence-specific, Das1 is highly promiscuous, recognizing a variety of C-degron motifs. By screening for full-length substrates, we implicate SCF Das1 in degradation of orphan protein complex subunits. Altogether, this work highlights the variety of C-degron pathways in eukaryotes and uncovers how an SCF/C-degron pathway of broad specificity contributes to proteostasis., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

The Escherichia coli ATP-dependent ClpYQ protease constitutes ClpY ATPase/unfoldase and ClpQ peptidase. The Tyr 91st residue within the central pore-I site of ClpY-hexamer is important for unfolding and translocating substrates into the catalytic site of ClpQ. We have identified the degron site (GFIMRP 147th ) of SulA, a cell-division inhibitor recognized by ClpYQ and that the Phe 143rd residue in degron site is necessary for SulA native folded structure. However, the functional association of this degron site with the ClpYQ degrader is unknown. Here, we investigated the molecular insights into substrate recognition and discrimination by the ClpYQ protease. We found that the point mutants ClpY Y91F Q, ClpY Y91H Q, and ClpY Y91W Q, carrying a ring structure at the 91st residue of ClpY, efficiently degraded their natural substrates, evidenced by the suppressed bacterial methyl-methane-sulfonate (MMS) sensitivity, the reduced β-galactosidase activity of cpsB::lacZ , and the lowest amounts of MBP-SulA in both in vivo and in vitro degradation analyses. Alternatively, mimicking the wild-type SulA, SulA F143H , SulA F143K and SulA F143W , harboring a ring structure or a cation side-group in 143 rd residue of SulA, were efficiently degraded by ClpYQ in the bacterial cells, also revealing shorter half-lives at 41 °C and higher binding affinities towards ClpY in pull-down assays. Finally, ClpY Y91F Q and ClpY Y91H Q, were capable of effectively degrading SulA F143H and SulA F143K , highlighting a correspondingly functional interaction between the SulA 143rd and ClpY 91st residues. According to the interchangeable substituted amino acids, our results uniquely indicate that a transient π-π or cation-π interaction between the SulA 143rd and ClpY 91st residues could be aptly gripped between the degron site of substrates and the pore site of proteases (degraders) for substrate recognition and discrimination of the processive degradation.

Protein-targeted degradation is an emerging and promising therapeutic approach. The specificity of degradation and the maintenance of cellular homeostasis are determined by the interactions between E3 ubiquitin ligase and degradation signals, known as degrons. The human genome encodes over 600 E3 ligases; however, only a small number of targeted degron instances have been identified so far. In this study, we introduced DegronMD, an open knowledgebase designed for the investigation of degrons, their associated dysfunctional events, and drug responses. We revealed that degrons are evolutionarily conserved and tend to occur near the sites of protein translational modifications, particularly in the regions of disordered structure and higher solvent accessibility. Through pattern recognition and machine learning techniques, we constructed the degrome landscape across the human proteome, yielding over 18,000 new degrons for targeted protein degradation. Furthermore, dysfunction of degrons disrupts the degradation process and leads to the abnormal accumulation of proteins; this process is associated with various types of human cancers. Based on the estimated phenotypic changes induced by somatic mutations, we systematically quantified and assessed the impact of mutations on degron function in pan-cancers; these results helped to build a global mutational map on human degrome, including 89,318 actionable mutations that may induce the dysfunction of degrons and disrupt protein degradation pathways. Multiomics integrative analysis unveiled over 400 drug resistance events associated with the mutations in functional degrons. DegronMD, accessible at https://bioinfo.uth.edu/degronmd, is a useful resource to explore the biological mechanisms, infer protein degradation, and assist with drug discovery and design on degrons., Competing Interests: Conflict of Interest. The authors declare no competing interests., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Society for Molecular Biology and Evolution.)

Hypoxic responses in plants involve Plant Cysteine Oxidases (PCOs). They catalyze the N-terminal cysteine oxidation of Ethylene Response Factors VII (ERF-VII) in an oxygen-dependent manner, leading to their degradation via the cysteine N-degron pathway (Cys-NDP) in normoxia. In hypoxia, PCO activity drops, leading to the stabilization of ERF-VIIs and subsequent hypoxic gene upregulation. Thus far, no chemicals have been described to specifically inhibit PCO enzymes. In this work, we devised an in vivo pipeline to discover Cys-NDP effector molecules. Budding yeast expressing AtPCO4 and plant-based ERF-VII reporters was deployed to screen a library of natural-like chemical scaffolds and was further combined with an Arabidopsis Cys-NDP reporter line. This strategy allowed us to identify three PCO inhibitors, two of which were shown to affect PCO activity in vitro. Application of these molecules to Arabidopsis seedlings led to an increase in ERF-VII stability, induction of anaerobic gene expression, and improvement of tolerance to anoxia. By combining a high-throughput heterologous platform and the plant model Arabidopsis, our synthetic pipeline provides a versatile system to study how the Cys-NDP is modulated. Its first application here led to the discovery of at least two hypoxia-mimicking molecules with the potential to impact plant tolerance to low oxygen stress., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest with the contents of this article., (Copyright © 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Abstract As the mutant estrogen receptor (ER) continues to be characterized, breast cancer is becoming increasingly difficult to cure when treated with hormone therapy. In this regard, a strategy to selectively and effectively degrade the ER might be an effective alternative to endocrine therapy for breast cancer. In a previous study, we identified a novel series of 7-oxabicyclo[2.2.1]heptene sulfonamide (OBHSA) compounds as full ER antagonists while lacking the prototypical ligand side chain that has been widely used to induce antagonism of ERα. Further crystal structure studies and phenotypic assays revealed that these compounds are selective estrogen receptor degraders (SERDs) with a new mechanism of action. However, from a drug discovery point of view, there still is room to improve the potency of these OBHSA compounds. In this study, we have developed new classes of SERDs that contain the OBHSA core structure and different side chains, e.g., basic side chains, long alkyl acid side chains, and glycerol ether side chains, to simply mimic the degrons of proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC) and then investigated the structure-activity relationships of these PROTAC-like hybrid compounds. These novel SERDs could effectively inhibit MCF-7 cell proliferation and demonstrated good ERα degradation efficacy. Among the SERDs, compounds 17d , 17e and 17g containing a basic side chain with a N -trifluoroethyl substituent and a para methoxyl group at the phenyl group of the sulfonamide turned out to be the best candidates for ER degraders. A further docking study of these compounds with ERα elucidates their structure-activity relationships, which provides guidance to design new PROTAC degrons targeting ER for breast cancer therapy. Lastly, easy modification of these PROTAC-like SERDs enables further fine-tuning of their pharmacokinetic properties, including oral availability. Graphical abstract A series of novel SERDs with excellent ER degradation efficacy have been discovered. These findings simplified the structure of currently available degrons and provide new possibility for discovering novel PROTACs. Image 1 Highlights • A series of novel SERDs with simplified degrons and excellent estrogen receptor degradation efficacy have been discovered.. • These findings simplified the structure of currently available degrons and provide new possibility for discovering novel PROTACs. • Molecular docking analysis illustrates the interaction of basic side chain of these compounds with ERα, which may implicate a new mechanism of action for this type of SERDs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]