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Food loss and food waste (FLW) within agri-food supply chains in the developing world remains a perennial problem. This is partly due to the lack of knowledge on how business operations within supply chains contribute towards the FLW issue, particularly in the case of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Circular Economy (CE) has been heralded as an appropriate pathway for businesses towards reduction of FLW, however, the practical realities of how the CE can be best employed remains unclear. This paper fills this knowledge gap by studying growers, distributors and retailers in the agri-food supply chain, in order to develop a Circular Capability Framework. The findings generate unique insights into FLW understandings, causes and mitigation strategies to provide a detailed, developing world relevant food waste hierarchy. The novel framework we propose can aid participation in the CE by conceptualising CE antecedents as business capability pathways, set out as eight propositions.

This paper investigates the strategies export-oriented agricultural firms use to mitigate water risks. By doing so, we respond to a gap in Global Production Network (GPN) scholarship, whereby the relationships between economic production and the natural environment have received insufficient attention. We build on GPN 2.0′s formulation of environmental risk as a causal driver of firms’ strategies, combining it with the concept of water stewardship. Empirical evidence is drawn from the export-oriented fruit industry in South Africa’s Western Cape. We find that while current water risk mitigating strategies are successful in securing water for fruit producers, these also have negative impacts on the wider South African water governance regime by depoliticising water allocation. In post-apartheid South Africa, this is deeply problematic. Our findings emphasise the imperative for research to consider the wider socio-political and ecological context when evaluating firm strategies to mitigate water and other environmental risks in South Africa and beyond.

The extent to which mega events, such as the Olympics and World Expos, catalyse meaningful legacies is a contentious issue. However, the organisers of such events go to great lengths to develop business legacy plans in order to gain legitimacy with their wider stakeholders. This process constitutes a critical cornerstone for the overall success of the event, but business legacy plans tend to fade away after the delivery phase. Drawing upon the legitimacy literature, our study investigates this gap between planning and long-term delivery through a case study of the 2016 Rio Olympic Games. Interviews with forty-three directors of Rio 2016 were conducted between February-April 2016, in addition to the collection of field notes and secondary data. We find that Rio 2016 applied a decoupling strategy before and during the event to gain short-term legitimacy via legacy planning. However, a legitimacy drift was identified, whereby legacy delivery was side-lined and positive outcomes were minimal. We argue that the drive for legitimacy tends to be short-lived, and as legitimacy drifts, legacy becomes mythical. This has important implications for literature on legitimacy and legacy, organising bodies and for all businesses involved in event management.

This paper focuses upon the role that science-based interventions allied to effective regulatory regimes can play in reducing the threat posed by inappropriate harvesting of wild flora. A Vulnerabi...

Research question: The legacies of sport mega-events are widely contested. Whilst the short-term impacts of the 2010 FIFA World Cup™ in South Africa have been largely considered to be posit...

South Africa’s Working for Water (WfW) programme launched in 1995 has received national and international acclaim for its attention to clearing alien species and providing employment among historically disadvantaged communities. In recent years, the Green Economy narrative has pervaded the national policy agenda, with the WfW programme being showcased as a symbol of Green Economy praxis. The paper considers recent developments in WfW and whether its objectives have been achieved in light of tensions and constraints associated with the macro-policy environment. Drawing upon evidence from field-based research in Western Cape Province, the experience of the Agulhas Biodiversity Initiative (ABI) is examined, in which a number of stakeholders including private landowners, community members and local government bodies are collaborating in a landscape management initiative. Despite some worthwhile benefits, ABI has suffered from some problems and contradictions. In the future such projects need to have stronger environmental objectives, but in reality these are likely to be constrained by neo-liberal thinking at national and supra-national levels.

This paper explores the significance of the relationships and disjunctures between the global moral discourses of Fairtrade that are articulated through ethics of fairness in supply chains and the everyday moral experiences, discourses and practices of producers that shape moral economies in specific localities. Due to increased governance through universal codes, standards and certification, Fairtrade risks becoming an abstract ethical and regulatory tool, disconnected from the moral economies of those poor farmers it is intended to benefit. In response, the paper makes a case for a deeper understanding of the moral economies of farmers involved in Fairtrade networks and the ways in which these emerge out of moral experiences that are deeply embedded in local social and cultural relations. Through a case study of Eksteenskuil Agricultural Cooperative in South Africa’s Northern Cape, it seeks to demonstrate the importance of understanding the moral experiences of producers to better consider what is at stake for them, focusing on notions of cooperation, fairness and the ‘good farmer’, perceptions of community, and concerns with survival and self-sufficiency. The paper concludes that working in culturally-sensitive ways with producer communities and understanding how their local moral worlds are structured is vital in bridging the gap between abstract ethical discourses and the place-based moral experiences of producers, and to ensuring the effectiveness of Fairtrade initiatives.

This paper evaluates the outcomes from an ambitious wildflower harvesting programme in South Africa's Western Cape, which has sought to achieve positive outcomes in terms of socio-economic development and biodiversity conservation. Indigenous wildflowers, harvested according to conservation principles, are processed into ‘Cape Flora’ bouquets and sold into international and domestic markets. The principal supply chain provides an example of ethical trade due to the explicit environmental and social standards that are required at local sites of production. The incorporation of such standards represents an attempt to engender economic and social upgrading within the value chain. In this sense, the programme is consistent with dominant policy discourses, which suggest that exploiting potentially profitable niches within international trade flows represents a ‘high road’ to economic growth and transformation. The paper focuses upon the job creation and social impacts of the programme in the context of efforts to overcome South Africa's deeply entrenched socio-economic disparities and high poverty levels. Despite impressive growth in production and exports during the global financial crisis, there have been mixed outcomes in terms of benefits to stakeholders at the upstream end of the supply chain. The paper concludes by considering the extent to which local initiatives operating under the framework of ethical trade possess the potential to facilitate effective social and economic upgrading.

This paper presents a critical engagement with current initiatives for ethically-labeled goods in South Africa, thus offering an intervention in a literature on ethical consumption that has previously prioritized the global North. Through an interview-based methodology supported by focus groups in the Western Cape, the paper attends specifically to the strategies shaping recent forms of ethical consumption in South Africa on the part of business and civil society. Campaigns and strategies associated with three of the most prominent ethical labeling initiatives in South Africa—Proudly South African, Fairtrade Label South Africa and the Southern African Sustainable Seafood Initiative (SASSI)—are evaluated. Barnett et al.’s (2011: 90) notion of “mobilizing the ethical consumer” is brought into conversation with ethical consumption literature on local embeddedness in order to assess the ways in which the organizations responsible for these initiatives combine globalizing business and political networks of responsibility with local institutions and values in South Africa. The role played by the discursive construction of a growing South African ‘middle class’ is also acknowledged as part of the process of encouraging ethical consumption on the part of these actors. In conclusion, it is suggested that understanding ethical consumption in South Africa, as elsewhere, requires sensitivity to both transnational networks of globalizing responsibility and localized expressions of ethical consumption.

This paper proposes dialogue between postcolonial theory and the analytical frameworks of global value chains (GVCs) and global production networks (GPNs). It does so in order to open up more culturally sensitive accounts of global supply networks and exporting localities than those provided by prevailing political-economic approaches. Particular focus is placed on Zein-Elabdin’s postcolonial notion of economic hybridity to advance understanding of the institutional contexts shaping production networks. The value of applying this concept to GVC/GPN studies is illustrated in the case of a sustainable wildflower harvesting supply network in South Africa’s Western Cape, which supplies ethically promoted bouquets to domestic and European markets. Transnational cultural politics, including those associated with colonial encounters, are shown to shape the hybrid institutional context of this production network. It is suggested that such a perspective on institutional hybridity offers just one fruitful conversation between postcolonial approaches and GVC/GPN frameworks. Keywords: global production networks, global value chains, postcolonial theory, South Africa

This chapter examines the importance of place for the cultural and environmental dynamics shaping Fairtrade cooperatives. It draws on a case study of the Eksteenskuil Agricultural Cooperative (EAC) in South Africa’s Northern Cape, which supplies Fairtrade raisins to Traidcraft plc, one of the UK’s leading Fairtrade organizations. It examines how the histories and geographies of place continually challenge and redefine the meaning and effectiveness of Fairtrade. It concludes with a number of recommendations for both Fairtrade organizations in general and EAC/Traidcraft specifically.

This article contributes to debate on the evolving expressions of business responsibility in emerging market economies and developing economies by exploring and theorizing the ways in which the Fairtrade standard for supply chains is being re-worked and implemented in South Africa. To understand the changing ways in which the global Fairtrade standard is embedded in South Africa, the article argues for attention not only to recent strategic re-articulations of the standard through national-level initiatives, but also to the localized experiences of producer groups, including those in peripheral regions. This argument is supported by interview-based research revealing the challenges faced by a particular Fairtrade producer community — Eksteenskuil Agricultural Cooperative (EAC) in the Northern Cape. A relational approach developed from economic geography shows how challenges concerning market access, land tenure and community empowerment for this producer emerge from a combination of global Fairtrade conventions, South Africa's dynamic national-institutional context and local politics of place.

Corporate efforts to demonstrate ‘sustainability’ within production networks are driving a continued demand for new metrics. This raises questions concerning which experts will be enlisted in their creation, what data and calculative methods they will draw on, and how and whether different publics will be convinced of the rigour of these metrics and their ethical purpose. Debates about futures and expectations tend to be western-centric; in response, this paper highlights the sophisticated environmental science and knowledges in a global South context where politics and uncertainty are of utmost importance. It draws on research into sustainable wild flower harvesting in the Cape Floral Kingdom (CFK), in the Western Cape province of South Africa, to explore the politics of expectation and future-making driving debates about biodiversity conservation and socio-economic empowerment within rural communities. It focuses specifically on how expectations of technologies, databases, knowledge and the environment play out in this particular site of production, influencing debates about sustainability, but also perspectives on what is ethical. The case study demonstrates that expectations are neither uniform nor uncontested, but bound up with inequities of power and authority in defining futures. The paper draws on postcolonial approaches to conclude that a radical opening of databases and knowledge production might challenge these asymmetries, but that constraints exist because of external pressures and expectations that arise from the political economy of biodiversity conservation.

This paper examines the importance of place for the cultural and environmental dynamics shaping Fairtrade cooperatives. It draws on a case study of the Eksteenskuil Agricultural Cooperative (EAC) in South Africa's Northern Cape, which supplies Fairtrade raisins to Traidcraft plc, one of the UK's leading Fairtrade organizations. It examines how the histories and geographies of place continually challenge and redefine the meaning and effectiveness of Fairtrade. It concludes with a number of recommendations for both Fairtrade organizations in general and EAC/Traidcraft specifically.

Ruthenium complex 3b bearing chelating carboxylate ligand was immobilized on mesoporous molecular sieve SBA-15 via cleavage of carboxylate by fluorocarboxylic acid groups introduced on the support surface. The hybrid olefin metathesis catalyst Ru/L/SBA-15, prepared straightforward without use of silver salts, exhibited high activity and selectivity in model metathesis reactions and low ruthenium leaching.

The planning practice of focusing most rural development within larger settlements has failed to achieve goals of rural activity colocation. In a society where quality of opportunity has become dominant in location decisions, a broader imaginative perspective than the physical proximity of functions is required if meaningful activity colocation is to occur. The extent to which residents and employees can be encouraged to localise their activity is explored through case studies of three very different small towns within the English county of Norfolk. Although not of universal appeal, small towns provide an important niche for many rural actors. Rather than abandoning policy endeavours, there is potential to improve their effectiveness by ensuring that the possible benefits arising from the colocation of activity are realised. By adopting a more flexible approach to policy application, utilising complementary conceptions which are attentive to the specific characteristics of individual places, potential exceptions to policies of development concentration can be identified. However, in the UK context ongoing cutbacks in local authority budgets are likely to prejudice the conduct of the type of fine-grained local policy development required to achieve these objectives.

Hybrid catalysts for olefin metathesis were prepared by the immobilization of Ru alkylidenes (Grubbs catalysts) on mesoporous molecular sieves SBA-15 and MCM-41 having the surface modified with molecules bearing dicyclohexylphosphine (PCy2) and pyridine end groups. Hybrid catalysts with Ru attached to the surface via PCy2 ligands exhibited higher activity and stability than those with Ru attached via pyridine ligands. The former catalysts exhibited a high activity in a series of metathesis reactions (RCM, ROMP, and cross-metathesis) reaching turnover numbers (TONs) from 200 to 2000 and being reusable several times. The filtration tests for all catalysts suggested that the solid catalysts were responsible for catalytic activity during the reactions. Only low Ru leaching was observed. A positive effect of the pore size of the support on catalyst activity was observed for the metathesis of methyl oleate.

New heterogeneous catalysts for ring opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP) have been prepared by immobilization of RuCl2(p-cymene)(PCy3) (Cy = cyclohexyl) on silica and siliceous mesoporous molecular sieves SBA-15 and MCM-41. Activity of these catalysts was investigated in ROMP of norbornene (NBE) and its derivatives (dicyclopentadiene, 5-norbornene-2-yl acetate). High molecular weight polymers (Mw up to 400 000) were prepared in yields up to 80% using catalysts based on mesoporous sieves. In contrast, with catalyst based on conventional silica the yield did not exceed 28% (ROMP of NBE). Filtration test proved that the catalytic activity was bound to the solid phase. Catalysts could be easily separated from the reaction mixture in contrast to the corresponding homogeneous system. Therefore, polymers with reduced amounts of catalyst residues were obtained.

Post-apartheid South Africa is characterized by considerable spatial and social inequality and high levels of poverty and unemployment, particularly among historically disadvantaged groups. Since 1994, there has been much attention given to fostering local economic development (LED) to promote empowerment, job creation, economic growth and community development, with a primary focus on broad-based Black Economic Empowerment. However, LED initiatives have achieved mixed success, with many projects foundering after optimism in their early stages. Focusing on South Africa's Western Cape Province, with its species-rich Cape Floristic Region, this paper examines LED experience in relation to the concept of the ‘biodiversity economy’, which has received considerable attention recently among South African environmental bodies. The paper focuses specifically on operationalizing the biodiversity economy concept through the implementation of a ‘sustainable wild flower harvesting code of practice’ on the Agulhas Plain, where local communities, supported by transnational companies, are harvesting and marketing wild flowers to retailers in South Africa and the UK. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.

New hybrid catalysts for olefin metathesis were prepared by immobilization of Hoveyda–Grubbs type Ru alkylidenes on a siliceous SBA-15 support via exchange of chloro ligands for substituted carboxylates. Catalysts proved a high activity in ring closing metathesis of 1,7-octadiene and diethyl diallylmalonate, reusability and low Ru leaching. In Ring Opening Metathesis Polymerization of norbornene and cyclooctene, SBA-15 supported catalyst gave higher yields of high-molecular-weight polymers than corresponding catalyst with conventional silica support.

In the context of improvements in mobility and changing patterns of retail, the importance of market town centres to rural residents has diminished, leaving many vulnerable to decline and their contemporary relevance questioned. Based on experience from 11 case-study towns located throughout England, this paper considers the prospects for regenerating the fortunes of market town centres. It is argued that this can be achieved through an integration of functional concerns with an appreciation of the desire to develop ‘spaces of consumption’ where there is focus on the leisure aspects of town centre visits. Although a number of the issues are beyond the direct remit of spatial planners, an awareness of the implications of development management and the context within which decisions are occurring is crucial.

Despite recent critical analyses of the nature and impacts of social and environmental certification, the increasingly complex landscape of voluntary, industry and third-party codes and certification processes that have emerged in specific sectors is poorly understood. In particular, little is known about the potential threats posed by an increasingly complex and contested ‘ethical’ landscape in undermining radical initiatives designed to bring about improvements to material and social well-being. In response, this paper explores the current dynamics of social and environmental certification in the South African wine industry. Drawing on fieldwork in the UK and Western Cape, the paper analyses the overlapping and sometimes conflictual processes of social and environmental certification, and the role of key drivers in establishing them within the wine industry. It explores whether attempts to capture a portion of the expanding market for ‘ethical’ wines and the expansion of corporate interests in ‘responsibility’ and ‘ethics’ work to depoliticize the meaning and nature of transformation. The implications of the findings are that, in the absence of legislative requirements to transform the wine industry, social codes and civic conventions are likely to remain significant, but that greater understanding is required of the different meanings and outcomes of transformation and empowerment being deployed within the industry. The paper concludes that a significant problem facing transformation and alternative trade in the wine industry, and more broadly, lies in the growing gap between the abstract ethical discourse of corporate actors, on the one hand, and the moral experience of workers on the other.

A hallmark of post-apartheid South Africa has been the introduction of bold and innovative policy in areas ranging from the national Constitution to resource management policy. In line with this approach, there has been a clear commitment to principles of decentralization and participatory development, with Local Economic Development (LED) featuring prominently in national, provincial and local government pronouncements and planning. Despite considerable policy and funding support for LED, results at best can be described as only modest. This paper critically reflects on the importance attached to LED in South Africa, what has been attempted over the last decade, and the various reasons that might explain the limitations experienced with applied LED, including those that are inherent in the nature of LED and those that can be attributed to local factors. The paper draws upon field-based research undertaken over more than a decade and the findings of a major study undertaken by an international development finance organization. The paper raises challenging questions about the nature, focus and potential of LED as an appropriate development intervention.

Rooibos tee (red bush tea) ( Aspalathus linearis, Fabaceae ), which is indigenous only to the Cedarberg and neighbouring mountains of South Africa, has become popular internationally as a result of its apparent health-giving properties. Situated within the broader contexts of alternative food networks, alternate economic spaces and local/community-based development, this paper examines how two marginalised communities have successfully penetrated international markets by supplying organically produced rooibos tea which is certified by the international Fairtrade system. Focusing on the cases of Wupperthal and Heiveld, the paper explores the dynamics of the production and marketing process and the key variables involved. Success has been achieved through active NGO support, which has engaged with local skills and social capital, and has led to significant social and economic upliftment among the participating communities. The experience illustrates how, given the right conditions, poor communities in the South might participate successfully in global alternative food networks.

Newly emerging ethical trade practices in the South African wine industry are examined as a way of engaging with debates about the ability of alternative trade approaches to facilitate meaningful opportunities for socioeconomic development in the global South. The South African wine industry has undergone rapid restructuring since the end of apartheid in order to meet the demands of international markets. However, transforming racially skewed ownership and skill patterns is proving a particular challenge. In this paper we outline some of the initiatives that have been introduced to stimulate socioeconomic change within the industry. By utilising analytical tools such as commodity chains, networks, and cultural approaches we demonstrate that a complex array of forces is driving change on the ground. Such forces include national imperatives derived from the legacy of apartheid and the concerns of consumers in the global North. We conclude by considering the types of local and global constraints that need to be challenged if these initiatives are to be successful in facilitating meaningful socioeconomic transformation within the wine industry.

Despite being a poorly defined and vague concept, empowerment is currently of political and theoretical significance and nowhere more so than in South Africa, where it seen as central to post-apartheid transformation. This paper explores the ways in which empowerment has been understood, defined and deployed by post-apartheid governments in the context of a gradual shift from nation-building to neo-liberal governance. It examines the impact of legislation and government policy through a critical examination of empowerment initiatives in the wine industry. Drawing on research conducted in the Western Cape in 2004, the paper analyses how empowerment is interpreted and appropriated both within legislation and specifically within the wine industry. It explores what the wine industry reveals about the disempowering work of neo-liberalism, even as it is couched in the discourses of empowerment. Findings suggest that equating empowerment with economic empowerment threatens to reinforce structures of domination, rather than transforming them, while leaving power relations largely untouched. The case study reveals that until more radical understandings of power and empowerment are acknowledged and incorporated into government policies the failure to address broader issues of social and economic transformation will persist and policies aimed at the empowerment of marginalised individuals and communities will continue to have apparently pre-determined and depoliticised outcomes.

Ten years after the demise of apartheid, South Africa still faces significant development challenges. Government policy has focused mainly upon the macro‐economy, which has not necessarily helped address the plight of marginalized communities. One parallel mechanism designed to empower communities has been through the encouragement of Local Economic Development (LED). However, local government action has been prioritised and other role‐players marginalized, thus reducing the overall effectiveness of such interventions. This paper examines three cases of successful LED in the Western Cape province which have not been directed by local government. In all cases there have been clear socio‐economic dividends. The paper critically examines factors which have contributed to the success of these development initiatives.

Government policy in post-1994 South Africa, whilst upholding the principles of community participation and development, has been firmly wedded to a neoliberal growth agenda. This paper critically examines whether one element of that new growth agenda, that of Spatial Development Initiatives, has catalysed both ‘bottom-up’ development and also meaningfully assisted micro-entrepreneurs through more ‘top-down’ interventions. The paper focuses on two specific projects, namely the Saldanha Steel Plant and the Paternoster Fish Market, which have been components of a Spatial Development Initiative in the Western Cape. The serious constraints faced by communities in engaging with opportunities for socio-economic upliftment is clearly a cause for concern, and it is suggested that a careful re-evaluation of South Africa’s development paradigm is urgently required.

The quinoline ring is present in a number of natural and synthetic products often exhibiting interesting pharmacological activities or physical properties. Different synthetic approaches for the preparation of quinolines have been reported; the Friedl nder reaction (FR) being one of the simplest and most efficient methods. FR is a baseor acid-catalyzed condensation of an aromatic 2-amino-substituted carbonyl compound (aldehyde or ketone) with a carbonyl derivative containing a reactive a-methylene group followed by cyclodehydration (Scheme 1). Generally, the annulation takes place

This article advances debate on retailers’ supply networks and ethical trade using the case of sustainably harvested wildflower bouquets supplied from South Africa to domestic and UK retailers. It illustrates three developments concerning: an evolving relationship between retailers’ brands and ethical trading strategies; a growing role for institutions in the global South in shaping ethical standards and acknowledgement of the challenges facing producers when retailers’ buying practices clash with ethical requirements. These trends concern strategizing, embedding and practising ethicality, respectively, with the term ethicality capturing not only the ethical standards themselves but also the changing practices shaping what counts as ethical.

Since 1994, the South African wine industry has been challenged to effect a complex transformation which has involved re-engaging with international markets whilst tackling an array of social, environmental and political challenges. The multiple dimensions of this transformation are reviewed within this chapter. The first section provides a geographical and statistical overview of the industry and assesses some of the reasons for its successes in engaging with the demands of international markets. A fascinating aspect of the industry’s recent biography has been the emergence of a number of initiatives with ethical dimensions that seek to address environmental and social concerns. A sample of these including Fairtrade, Wieta (the wine and agri-industry ethical trade initiative) and the Biodiversity and Wine Initiative is reviewed. The chapter concludes by considering some of the interrelationships between market and ethical imperatives alongside an overview of the ongoing challenges currently confronting the industry. These include maintaining profitability within the highly competitive global marketplace, retaining value added within South Africa, developing globally recognised brands, gaining recognition for the quality and diversity of higher value wines, streamlining ethical codes and effecting meaningful black economic empowerment.

A new heterogeneous catalyst for ring opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP) has been prepared by immobilization of [RuCl2(p-cymene)]2 on siliceous mesoporous molecular sieves SBA-15. Activity of the catalyst was tested in ROMP of norbornene. Filtration test proved that the catalytic activity is bound to the solid phase. Catalyst could be easily separated from reaction mixture in contrast to the corresponding homogeneous system and therefore polymer with reduced amounts of catalyst residues was obtained.

How ethical trade develops in specific ways in particular national-institutional and historical contexts remains largely unexamined. This paper analyses approaches to ethical trade in the South African wine industry through a case study of the Wine and Agricultural Ethical Trade Association. It examines factors influencing WIETA, including the legacies of colonialism and apartheid, its relationship with post-apartheid restructuring and legislation, and the role of international retailers. WIETA’s impact within the wine industry, stakeholder perceptions, and improvements in on-farm standards are explored. The paper illustrates how these impacts are mediated by political and economic factors operating at various scales, and by the contradictions of improving working conditions within free market globalisation. Within these broader contexts, it argues that expectations of WIETA are unrealistic and its role in transformation widely misunderstood. Instead, ethical trade initiatives need to be understood within their spatial, institutional, and historical contexts so as not to overestimate and undervalue their contribution to socio-economic transformation.

A multilayer transducer model for predicting a transducer impulse response has in earlier works been developed and combined with the Field II software. This development was tested on current, voltage, and intensity measurements on piezoceramics discs (Bæk et al. IUS 2008) and a convex 128 element ultrasound imaging transducer (Bæk et al. ICU 2009). The model benefits from its 1D simplicity and hasshown to give an amplitude error around 1.7‐2 dB. However, any prediction of amplitude, phase, and attenuation of pulses relies on the accuracy of manufacturer supplied material characteristics, which may be inaccurate estimates. The previous test cases have assumed the simulation parameters to be exact as received from the manufacturer. In this paper the influence of a deviation in the accuracy of the different parameters is studied by comparing simulation and measurement. The long term objective is a quantitative calibrated model for a complete ultrasound system. This includes a sensitivity study aspresented here.Statement of Contribution/MethodsThe study alters 35 different model parameters which describe a 128 element convex transducer from BK Medical Aps. The changes are within ±20 % of the values supplied by the manufacturer, which are considered the zero reference (ZR). Simulations of a system consisting of a transmit unit, a five material layer transducer, and the FIELD II predicted pressure are performed by altering in turn the value of a single parameter in steps of 2 %. The remaining simulation parameters are held fixed at the ZR. The influence of the parameter change is determined by calculating the pressure and the intensity at adistance of 112 mm on an element’s center axis and comparing it with hydrophone measurements. These are performed with a water bath hydrophone setup using an Agilent MSO6014A oscilloscope that is set to average consecutive pulses 48 times for noise reduction of the hydrophone output. A commercial transmitter unit is used to drive the transducer with a 10 cycle tone burst at a frequency of 4.0 MHz and a maximum excitation amplitude of 31 volt.ResultsPredictions using the ZR give a pressure pulse error (PPE) and an intensity error (IE) of 32 % and 23 %, respectively, relative to the measured. Altering the piezoelectric permittivity +12 % from ZR decreases the PPE to 30 % and the IE to 2 % relative to the measured. Changing the stiffness constant of the lens -4 % from ZR increases the PPE and the IE with 6 % and 1 %, respectively. Performing the same with the ceramic stiffness the PPE is lowered 1.5 % and the IE is lowered 12 %.Discussion and ConclusionsPPEs are found mainly to be sensitive to lens properties and piezoceramic properties, but minor sensitive to changes in matching layers. IEs are mainly sensitive to the piezoceramic properties. The study shows that minor changes can improve predictions significantly.

In recent years several significant global scale corporate citizenship initiatives have emerged via the operations of major international bodies such as the OECD, the UN and the World Bank. The first section of this chapter outlines key guidelines and protocols emanating from each of these globally influential bodies. The reality that such initiatives are being supported at a multilateral level is suggestive of the extent to which notions of corporate citizenship are entering mainstream thinking concerning the role of multinational corporations (MNCs) in the present phase of globalisation. The chapter continues by examining one aspect of corporate citizenship, philanthropy (or giving), which has a long-standing tradition in the USA and we continue our comparative analysis through an examination of current trends in philanthropic activity in the UK and the USA. The corporate citizenship projects, which form the core focus of this book, are the major part of the objects of corporate giving.

We live in world of rising concern about the contribution of multinationals to society. Naomi Klein’s (2000) No Logo and Noreena Hertz’s (2001) The Silent Takeover have raised the spectre of global corporations who show little concern for their effect on vulnerable host communities and who are more powerful than many of the governments that welcome them across their borders. As such multinationals are often perceived to be in the process of destroying local cultures and replacing them with homogenised western values. Multinational production methods are accused of exploiting desperate workers and having low labour and environmental standards. The process of globalisation which multinationals represent is credited with undermining the power of national governments to control their economic destiny, leaving them vulnerable to the subsequent exit of footloose capital and undermining their tax base, by promoting tax competition among governments to attract them in the first place. Even more moderate writers such as Stopford, Strange and Henley (1991) recognise that a world with increasingly significant large global firms poses a fundamental challenge for developing country governments: change national economic policies (good or bad) or lose multinational investments.

‘Most people… would be amazed if they lifted the stone of contemporary business activity and saw the armies of consultants, experts, charlatans and do-gooders scurrying around inside and outside companies trying to help them become more socially responsible’ (Hilton and Gibbon, 2002).1

This book has addressed the issues relating to multinationals and the communities in which they operate. The purpose of the book is to assess how it is that multinationals can be more effective in contributing to economic and social development, particularly in developing countries, via their corporate citizenship (CC) programmes.