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This paper describes the International Conference on Dublin Core and Metadata Applications 2001 (DC-2001), the ninth major workshop of the Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI), which was held in Tokyo in October 2001. DC-2001 was a week-long event that included both a workshop and a conference. In the tradition of previous events, the workshop provided a forum for developers of Dublin Core to discuss important issues face-to-face. The conference part included both tutorials and presentations of peer-reviewed papers. The paper also describes follow-up activities since DC-2001 by working groups and the DCMI Usage Board. These activities are put into the context of DCMI's recent reorganization. An appendix includes the Table of Contents from Proceedings of DC-2001. Includes two tables. (Contains 10 references.) (Author)

This paper identifies three rationales in the relevant literature for closing the gender gap in computing: economic, cultural and political. Each rationale implies a different set of indicators of present inequalities, disparate goals for creating equality, and distinct principles for software and web site design that aims to help girls overcome the gender gap by increasing their interest and knowledge about computing. It is suggested that designers should pay greater attention to the political rationale for equity, conceiving software and Web sites that cultivate girls' civic uses of computers, so that women can exercise equal control over the architecture and policy of the information age. (Contains 28 references and 2 figures.) (Author/AEF)

This paper provides an initial examination of over 614 undergraduate multimedia courses now available in the United Kingdom with discussion centered on reasons for recent course expansion. Areas of specific growth and issues of course design are presented in the analysis and discussion. Changes in the application of multimedia from subject-specific to second subject contextualization are also discussed with reasoning to support learning benefits to be derived from this approach, and implications for course designers and providers are concluded. (Contains 14 references, 3 tables, and 1 diagram.) (Author)

"Design Inspection Reviews" are structured meetings in which participants follow certain rules of procedure and behavior when conducting detailed readings of design plans to identify errors and misunderstandings. The technique is widely used in the software engineering industry, where it is demonstrably more effective than testing at identifying errors in software, but it is by no means restricted to this domain. Similar practices can be found in many other creative industries. This paper reports on an interactive multimedia program used to reinforce the teaching of the technique to software engineering and computer network students. The results of the end-of-studies examination papers of the student group that used the multimedia program are compared to those of the previous group. The results appear to show an improvement of over 7% for the Review topic question for exams that were otherwise comparable in standard. The quality of the research data and the validity of it's conclusion are discussed. Includes two tables and three color figures. (Author)

The rapid changes in the field of technology are redefining the process of developing technology-enhanced educational materials as well as the roles of developers involved in the process.The purpose of this study was to learn from practitioners the roles and responsibilities of an instructional designer in developing new media enhanced instructional materials. Instructional designers working at various multimedia companies in Austin, Texas were interviewed. The findings of this study identified four essential competencies for being an instructional designer in new media development: communication; instructional design; problem-solving/decision making; and knowledge of technology tools. The paper concludes that the job market for instructional designers will continue to grow and expand, and with it, the definition of an instructional designer will evolve at the same pace that the technology changes. Since the role of an instructional designer is affected by the possibilities that new technologies create daily and how technological tools aid communication, so shall each instructional designer contribute to the task of defining their profession. (AEF)

Many instructors are expected to design and create Web courses. The design of Web courses can be a difficult task for educators who lack experience in interaction and instructional design. Design patterns have emerged as a way to capture design experience and present design solutions to novice designers. Design patterns are a widely accepted method of providing design support to software engineers, and they have been proposed to support designers of Web-based courses. However, end-users' abilities to use design patterns are unclear especially since Web-course design and computer programming are different activities. This paper presents a methodology for supporting novices' use of patterns during Web-based instructional design. This methodology consists of a pattern language for Web-based instruction and a design environment that scaffolds the process of finding, selecting, and applying patterns to design problems. (Contains 18 references and 2 figures.) (Author)

This paper examines how teachers, as educational designers, can utilize universal design for learning (UDL) concepts. UDL is a comprehensive approach to the design of educational systems that addresses elements necessary for the achievement of desired educational goals and objectives: elements such as equity among the participants, environmental supports, and the coupling between participant abilities and task requirements. The essential principles of UDL, which work synergistically, are: equitability, ergonomic soundness, perceptibility, cognitive soundness, error management, flexibility, and stability/predictability. The UDL principles presented in this paper draw from Enabling Technology Laboratory experiences as well as the knowledge and experience of many individuals, ranging from educators to engineers. Educational designers can systematically apply UDL principles to create more efficient and effective educational environments. (Contains 15 references, 1 table, and 7 figures.) (Author)

The aim of this exploratory study is to identify the skills needed by developers of Electronic Commerce (e-Commerce) systems. The paper proposes a framework pertaining to three categories of e-Commerce development knowledge: technical, human, and organizational. The initial findings reveal that there are some 16 possible e-Commerce skills tapping the three areas of e-Commerce knowledge. The results also reveal that there are similarities and differences among the perceptions of Information Technology managers and researchers with regard to (1) the relative usefulness of the 16 skills, and (2) the extent to which new graduates of Information Technology programs are equipped with these skills. Includes four tables. (Contains 10 references.) (Author)

Companies and universities are increasingly moving to online delivery for much of their training and education needs, and designing and building quality distance education is a challenge facing many organizations. Option Six is an independent company that is building customized e-learning solutions. Over the last 2 years, the instructional designers and user experience analysts at Option Six worked to help develop a 4-stage process for evaluating e-learning courses. The process is built around Donald Norman's (2000) definition of human-centered design. Human-centered development utilizes input from students in the target audience during the earliest stages of development. By having students involved early, unnecessary complexity can be eliminated and learning can be maximized. This paper describes the process used by Option Six and outlines the benefits and challenge of human-centered design for distance education. (Author)

The usability test team examined design problems that limit the ability of instructors at the Indiana University to use data entry forms on the School of Education Web site. The forms permit instructors to publish information about themselves and about courses they teach on the School of Education Web site. Faculty and graduate student instructors were asked to perform typical tasks with the Web forms under observation. Participants were asked to describe what they were thinking and feeling as they attempted to perform the task. From these observations, several key design problems were identified that prevented or frustrated the participants. Solutions are recommended to eliminate these problems. The paper concludes that the designers of this Web site should address the following problems in future versions of the site. First, the recommended procedure for adding an HTML-formatted syllabus to the School of Education Web site fails to produce satisfactory results. Designers should find tools that produce reliable results, or eliminate this option. The School of Education may need to make organizational changes such as employing specialists to assist instructors in preparing electronic versions if this feature is desired. Second, the Personal Information page causes problems for uses due to its length and complexity. At a minimum, the form should be separated into two pages, one for required information and one for optional information. In addition, the designers should make sure that all multi-line text fields handle carriage returns properly. Third, the designers should add navigational elements to the Web forms that provide users with indications of what steps they have completed and what steps they still need to complete. (Author/AEF)

Almost every state is "imposing" academic standards. Helping students to meet those standards is a key task for teachers and school administrators, as well as instructional systems designers. Thus, instructional designers in the K-12 environments are facing the challenge of using appropriately and effectively academic standards in their instructional systems design process. This paper offers some effective ways of handling academic standards in the instructional systems design process, together with examples. This paper is intended to encourage experts in both academic standards and instructional systems design to examine the role and influence of academic standards on instructional systems design processes and the subsequent outcomes. (Author)

Instructional designers are well equipped to handle the leadership of faculty development in higher education. Faculty development is part of the process of lifelong learning for the college or university instructor and a key component of the transformational changes taking place in higher education. The need for faculty to appropriately integrate technology into their curriculum and utilize innovative instructional methodologies is driven by five factors: students, faculty, administration, society, and technology. The roles of instructional designers and instructional systems design methodologies are critical to the success of faculty development programs and can successfully facilitate the dynamic change process currently underway in colleges and universities. A skilled instructional designer is a professional well-trained in assisting faculty members and serving faculty development programs to better utilize innovative instructional methodologies, strategies, and techniques. The anticipated outcome of the current transformation in higher education is improvement in teaching facilitated by faculty development initiatives under the guidance of the instructional designer. (Contains 14 references.) (Author/AEF)

The concepts of usability and user-centered design (UCD) have grown in popularity over the past 20 years as measured by the number of research and mainstream articles devoted to their discussion. As with all new developments, however, there are always the questions of how things work in practice compared to theory. A survey of 83 software developers, mostly in small- to medium-sized companies in variety of industries was conducted to examine software developers' views on UCD and usability practices and to illuminate how current practices relate to theory. Results of a descriptive analysis of the 22 Likert-scale attitude question items suggested that respondents had moderately positive attitudes towards UCD activities and discipline. The Likert-scale items were subsequently factor-analyzed and the results suggested that the respondents tended to agree that UCD is worth the effort and cost. They also tended to agree that it is important to conduct many use test sessions and they learned a lot about their products from user test sessions. Software developers who reported that their companies followed important UCD practices were more likely to agree with the view that UCD is worth the effort and cost. Those who have attended usability test sessions were more likely to agree that user test sessions are valuable, and that UCD is worth the effort and cost. However, those who have attended usability test sessions also were more likely to agree that UCD is more work and costs more than conventional development activities. Also, significantly more good usability practices were reported by software developers who worked on teams that either hired usability consultants or had a usability specialist on their teams compared with those who had no usability specialists at all. While software developers held positive attitudes towards UCD, it was notable that they did not report that their companies used practices that are central to UCD. It appears that, while many software developers agree that UCD is a good idea, it tends not to be implemented fully in practice. (Contains 18 references.) (Author/AEF)

The design of systems, including digital libraries, is often inspired by what technology makes possible. In user-centered design, design emphasizes users, their tasks and needs. The majority of current digital libraries are not designed for children. For digital libraries to be popular with children, they need to be fun and easy-to-use. This paper shows how observational and participatory work with children (11 to 14 year olds) as users resulted in the design of a digital library with novel-and useful-features. Beyond summarizing the design itself, a main contribution of the paper is making explicit the relationship between design and observational study, in particular, video analysis, that inspired the refinement of the initial design of the dynamic component of a children's digital library. The paper also addresses implementation and security, and discusses directions for future work. (Contains 26 references.) (AEF)

The usability of Instructional Multimedia (IMM) applications is vital for their success and for the satisfaction of their users, as the confusion resulting from using poorly designed programs can be particularly detrimental to learning performance. A number of approaches for expert-based evaluation of IMM have been proposed during the past few years. However, there is little evidence in the literature regarding how effective they are, especially in identifying real learner problems. This paper reports an empirical study that assesses whether experts can predict the problems experienced by students. The evidence suggests that expert evaluators, although successful in predicting usability problems, still have difficulties identifying certain types of learner problems, such as comprehension and learning support. The paper concludes that expert evaluations do not eliminate the need for tests with actual learners. Ways of improving their effectiveness are suggested. (Author/AEF)

A typical Web-based training development team consists of a project manager, an instructional designer, a subject-matter expert, a graphic artist, and a Web programmer. The typical scenario involves team members working together in the same setting during the entire design and development process. What happens when the team is distributed, that is when the instructional designers and the developers are not in the same setting? How can a geographically dispersed team work together meaningfully? What are the challenges they will face and how can they be overcome? Because it is becoming more common for instructional technologists to be brought in from several locations long-distance team building presents an important challenge to the process. This paper addresses several issues that instructional designers face when working in such distributed environments based on our experiences during a collaborative project between Syracuse University and a multi-national corporation. Toward this end, we propose using Web-based CSCW (computer supported collaborative work)systems to support distributed group design process. (Contains 17 references.) (Author)

Using the same data, which could come from local databases or external sources, such as the Web, virtual museum designers can build different hyperspaces. It is possible that visitors would find some of them more useful than others. Virtual museums designers should be equipped with a tool by which various hyperspaces for virtual museums can be easily designed and examined. This paper views a virtual museum as a hypertext that consists of nodes and links and shows that a database publishing tool called Lazy, which generates a hypertext view (derived hypertext) of a given database, can be used for designing virtual museums. The Lazy system consists of a declarative hypertext view specification language, a node schema compiler, and a node server that processes node requests. Since the language is purely declarative, it is fairly easy to construct and revise hyperspaces for a virtual museum. With this tool it becomes possible to adopt an iterative design methodology. Given a database for a virtual museum, first constructed is a hypertext using the procedure (Falquet & al., 1999) called an initial structure. The initial structure is then analyzed and possible refinement operations that can enhance the usability of the created hypertext are examined. For that purpose, a simple graph-based analysis is used, and kinds of analysis that can be done using the graph-based approach are shown. Once the structure is refined using the refinement operations, grammar-based formalism (Park, 1998) is applied to the refined structure to see whether a simpler grammar can be obtained, one that can generate the same hyperspace. The goal is to explore various analysis techniques on the hypertext and give insights into designing a good hyperspace using the analysis results. Includes six figures. (Author/AEF)

This paper summarizes a 10-month long research project conducted at the IBM T.J. Watson Research Center aimed at developing the design concept of a multi-institutional art and culture web site. The work followed a user-centered design (UCD) approach, where interaction with prototypes and feedback from potential users of the web site were sought throughout all the phases of the design process. In the first phase of the research, interviews were conducted with museum curators, questionnaires were issued to brick and mortar museum visitors, on-line surveys with users of museum web sites were performed, focus groups were run, and usability walk-throughs of best-of-breed museum web sites and of new web site design ideas. Results showed a surprisingly strong interest in streaming multimedia, TV-like experiences where users watched experts and artists talk about art and culture, augmented by links to additional and in-depth information. Such a design strategy was clearly favored by subjects over more interactive experiences, such as chat rooms, information search systems, or user curated tours. In other words, when users go to a web site of arts and culture looking for entertaining and educational content, they seem to be less interested in clicking to find information than in watching people, especially experts and celebrities, present and discuss artistic works from their perspective. Based on the results of the first phase, a prototype of a web site was developed based on the concept of "tours"--5-10 minute streaming multimedia experiences led by experts and artists and accessible by users with normal telephone connections. The tours resemble a slide show enhanced by narration, music, occasional video clips, and hot spots for extra information. Two pilot tours were fully produced and tested with users who reported great satisfaction with the tours in terms of their entertainment, engagement, and educational values. It was also observed that the most satisfied users were those who interacted and explored the least during a tour. (Author/AEF)

Implementing exportable instructional systems has always been a problem for instructional developers. Even the best instructional systems lose effectiveness when they are poorly implemented. Researchers have focused their efforts on creating mechanisms to help developers and managers improve and control implementation. However, most of these efforts do not address long-term effects, or take into account how teachers feel and react during the implementation process. This study presents the Dynamic Implementation Seeking Equilibrium (DISE) model, a nonlinear model of implementation for teacher-mediated instructional systems to measure rate of implementation over time. The DISE model's main independent variable, the exportability control factor (ECF) is an intrinsic quality of teacher-mediated instructional systems. ECF is defined as the amount of instructions, support resources, schedules of activities, and accountability methods embedded in the instructional system to delineate or control teachers' actions so they use the system according to the developers' original intent. The DISE model predicts four distinct scenarios: extinction, stable low implementation, stable high implementation, and unstable implementation with catastrophic change. Beyond the implications for the implementation of teacher-mediated instructional systems, this model offers an example of how some of the concepts, techniques, and methodologies of nonlinear dynamics can be applied to the field of instructional systems development. (Contains 21 references.) (Author/AEF)

The significance of design thinking and systems thinking for design has gained much recognition in recent years. In comparison to design thinking, scholarly discussion about systems thinking has a much longer history and includes more multiple and divergent perspectives. This paper reviews and critiques the essence of design thinking and systems thinking, and proposes a new approach for design, the design-within approach, to elaborate on the possibilities of fostering a design culture. Through design-within, learners could be engaged in envisioning learning, and in systemically designing their own learning. The design-within approach is an alternative approach that synthesizes the truly systemic spirit of systems thinking and the enlightening spirit of transformative design. Discussion includes the emergence of design thinking and its multiple perspectives; the link between design thinking and systems thinking; systems thinking and open educational systems design; the essence of Senge's systems thinking and its philosophical roots in both western and eastern culture; systems thinking as a language to be cultivated; comparison of Banathy's and Senge's systems thinking; and the design philosophy and roles of designers in the design-within approach. (Contains 25 references.) (AEF)

ADAPT[IT] (Advanced Design Approach for Personalized Training - Interactive Tools) is a European project within the Information Society Technologies program that is providing design methods and tools to guide a training designer according to the latest cognitive science and standardization principles. ADAPT[IT] addresses users in two significantly different domains within the aviation industry: aircraft maintenance training and air traffic control training. Because these two subject domains are quite different and because those who perform associated tasks also differ in significant ways, it is hypothesized that outcomes will generalize to other complex domains and users. The methods integrated into ADAPT[IT] are based on van Merrienboer's (1997) four-component instructional design model. The model provides guidelines for the design of training programs in highly complex domains and consists of four layers: (1) principled skill decomposition; (2) analysis of constituent skills and related knowledge; (3) selection of instructional methods; and (4) development of a learning environment. These layers prescribe and contextualize the activities that instructional designers should perform in order to produce effective training for complex cognitive skills. This paper reports the needs assessment procedures and outcomes associated with the effort and indicates how they are informing the evaluation plan. (Contains 10 references.) (Author/AEF)

This study investigated designer background characteristics and contextual variables that were hypothesized to influence the incorporation of motivational components in the design of instructional materials, as well as the factors that may affect the perceived level of a project's success. A hypothesized model was developed that depicted anticipated relationships (based on the literature) among the variable sets. Of the 500 questionnaires mailed to instructional design practitioners, 201 valid responses were returned. Stepwise multiple linear regression analyses and path analysis techniques were used to examine the following variables and test the hypothesized model: designer background; designer attitude toward motivation; instructional context; use of core ISD (Instructional Systems Design) elements; incorporation of motivation design components (analysis, attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction); and perceived level of the project's success. A revised model was developed from the results. The study found that certain background and contextual variables influence the incorporation of motivation design components and that certain factors in the hypothesized model have a significant relationship to the perceived level of success of a project. (Contains 34 references.) (Author/MES)

This paper presents the results of the implementation of an instructional approach that supports teachers' learning of instructional design (ID) and honors their beliefs and concerns within the ID process; participants included two instructors and 23 practicing K-12 teachers enrolled in an instructional design course as part of a masters program. The theoretical framework that supports this inquiry is presented, including how ID is viewed and consequently taught (the designer's view), how ID is used by teachers (the teacher's perspective), collaboration between teacher and designer, and teacher inquiry into their teaching. The research method is described, including the co-participatory, reflexive approach to instruction, in which all participants were viewed as learners who continually reflected and appraised joint efforts at teaching and learning ID. Findings are summarized and related to ways that teachers used to describe and represent their practice in ID projects, personal ID models, and course evaluation. How the co-participatory approach helped teachers and designers to learn from each other is discussed. (Contains 50 references.) (MES)

Instructional design (ID) case studies that pose authentic ill-defined design problems in realistic environments can help instructional design students bridge the gap between novice and expert practice. Over the past 3 years, the authors have explored aspects of this educational approach through the development of World Wide Web-based instructional design at the Curry School of Education, University of Virginia. This paper begins with a look at case study methods and how they are used to help students gain experience in ID practice. The design and development of the Web-based ID Case Competition, the 1998 IT (Instructional Technology) Case Event, is described, followed with a report on the competition involving seven universities. Officials and students felt that the case experience was valuable for developing ID expertise and preparing students for professional practice. These advantages and the opportunity for team collaboration were noted as motivators for participation. Most of the students were enthusiastic about the inclusion of emergent ID issues in the case and felt the experience expanded their knowledge of ID practice and application. The paper closes with a discussion of implications for the preparation of instructional designers and recommendations for future development activities. Survey and interview questions answered by participants are included. (Author/MES)

Current educational theory and practice clearly show that project-based instruction has the potential to enhance learning. Preliminary findings on one type of project-based learning in which students take on the role of hypermedia designers support this claim. This study examined the effect of being hypermedia designers on fourth-graders' motivation and learning of design knowledge. Both quantitative (motivation scale, design questionnaire, task ranking, HyperStudio tests, and analysis of student-created programs) and qualitative data (observations, response log entries, and interview) were collected. The findings showed that engaging students in hypermedia authoring could enhance their motivation, and allowing students to be hypermedia designers could support the development of design knowledge and higher order thinking skills. The skills most affected in this study included planning, presentation, reflection, collaboration, task distribution, and time management. Three tables presents data on: motivation, including measures of challenge, curiosity, mastery, judgment, and criteria; design skills, including categories of audience, presenting, planning, interest, mental effort, and collaboration; and the importance of the design tasks ranked by the students. Contains 21 references. (Author/DLS)

This paper focuses on reflection and reflective thinking as a means of developing expertise in instructional designers. The need for the reflective instructional designer is discussed, and reflective thinking is examined from several perspectives, i.e., controlled thinking, tacit knowledge, epistemic assumption, abductive reasoning, willingness to act, and social practice. A reflective thinking model made up of the following five phases is then described: problem recognition; problem clarification; hypothesis or suggestion formation and modification; mental elaboration of suggestions; and actions taken on the basis of the best supported hypothesis/suggestion. Six components explain the nature of reflective thinking: willingness to be thoughtful; willingness to recognize and understand the context in which assumptions and actions are formed; willingness to explore and imagine alternatives; understanding and accepting epistemic assumptions; using abductive inference; and exposure to a variety of interpretive considerations in dialogue with others. Three aspects of reflection identified by the preceding model--self-reconstruction; action-reconstruction; and social-reconstruction--are considered, and strategies for promoting reflective thinking in instructional designers based upon these aspects are offered. A figure illustrating the reflective thinking model is included. (Contains 26 references.) (DLS)

Instructional Technology is a field of innovation. As instructional technologists realize that their innovations are not always readily adopted, theories of diffusion and adoption have been incorporated into instructional development models. This paper describes five unexplored areas of research related to the adoption and diffusion of innovations, specifically on the gaps in the literature in instructional settings: (1) Interaction of Adopter Groups; (2) Adoption Versus Retention; (3) Product Versus Process; (4) Technical and Societal Accommodations; and (5) Perspectives of Innovation. For each of the five areas, the authors provide an overview, a sample research question, a hypothetical case, and a description of one or more methodologies that might be appropriate to examine the question. The paper also includes a discussion of the contributions that diffusion theory has made to the field of instructional technology. (Contains 18 references.) (AEF)

The issue of educational design was central in a study conducted at the University of Twente (The Netherlands). The goal was to describe the strategies that well-known designers in various education and training practices use. Twenty-three designers from different educational sectors (textbooks, curricula, educational media, etc.) were interviewed, and relevant project documents from their projects were reviewed. Interview findings were reviewed in light of four major movements in contemporary thinking and their underlying rationales: modernism, pragmatism, critical theory, and postmodernism. Main models of educational design can be related to these movements. In the philosophy of modernism, the planning-by-objectives model of instructional design uses logical reasoning and systematic approaches in an instrumental, or end-means, approach. The prototyping model, related to pragmatism, is useful when the goals of the design process are not clear. The deliberative model of educational design, related to critical theory, emphasizes the function of communication. The final model, the artistic model of educational design, is related to postmodernism and considers those who make decisions about instructional design as artists representing views of reality. Fragments from the interviews are used to illustrate these perspectives, although none of the designers represented the artistic rational. (Contains 2 tables and 21 references.) (SLD)

Confronting recent design challenges, instructional designers have latched onto adaptive procedural techniques from outside the Instructional Systems Design (ISD) field. This discussion of rapid prototyping (RP) examines the perspectives of: (1) the prototype as the designer"s cognitive tool; (2) the designer as co-inquirer; and (3) the practitioner as producer of knowledge. It brings to the foreground key issues often passed over in the discussion of instructional design models--the importance of knowledge derived in doing and the seldom-examined assumptions underlying a "scientific" approach to design. In RP, designers bring a product into being through the creation of successive prototypes. The intermediate prototypes become an important means of getting feedback as the design and development process become intertwined. Viewing RP as a "tool-for-thought" challenges the design/development hierarchy reflected in traditional instructional design models; the act of conceptualizing is integrated into the act of practice. When development is seen as "concrete knowing" or "bricolage," development can be elevated to the status that design now holds in the traditional view of ISD as "design, then development." The designer, in the act of doing, uses the prototype as a tool of inquiry and the hierarchical relationship between design and development is equalized. When rapid prototyping is viewed primarily as an inquiry tool that may be used collaboratively with nondesigners, the designer's responsibility is to support collaborative investigation. The highly iterative nature of RP involves frequent evaluation and revisiting of the problems addressed and created by the product under development. The mockup or prototype becomes the focal point for the group's critique, idea generation, and idea testing. (Contains 24 references.) (AEF)

Following a review of the literature, this paper reports on a study conducted with multimedia developers on their use of project management systems. The research questions that guided this study focused on whether multimedia developers use project management techniques; which kind they use; and which management techniques are of particular importance to multimedia development. Five project managers with different backgrounds were identified as successful. Based on an instructional development (ID) model described in the literature, project managers were interviewed on five aspects: (1) funding and proposal writing; (2) team assembly and management; (3) ID; (4) evaluation, marketing, and support; and (5) management. Findings show that the multimedia developers interviewed not only practice management techniques, but also regard project management as critical to the success of a project. The five components of ID management process were represented by the work of subjects. An appendix presents the interview questions as well as seven figures and tables illustrating: components of ID project management; types of proposals; features of successful proposals; techniques used by ID managers; and the phases of a typical multimedia project design process. (Contains 16 references.) (AEF)

This paper addresses some of the challenges and dilemmas faced by two instructional designers as they incorporated visual imagery and audio components into the design of two distinct interactive multimedia products. Each instructional product was designed as a professional development seminar or series of instructional seminars for two distinctly different groups of adult learners. One product was designed for preservice teachers who spend a significant amount of time on campus and in classes, while the other was designed for practicing social workers who are employed in isolated, rural areas where access to professional development is extremely limited. The following considerations which were identified as essential to any improvement of instructional design guidelines are discussed: (1) how the visual elements of hypermedia should be structured; (2) proper uses of visual metaphors; (3) formidable questions inherent in the presentation of content and images; (4) when design supersedes content; (5) the importance of the instructional designer's familiarity with new models of instruction and learning theory; (6) theoretical elements appropriate for the graphical-user interface; (7) images, language, and content that are free of cultural and gender bias; (8) how images, language, and content accurately represent the cultural and gender variables; and (9) how formative and summative evaluation should occur. (Contains 40 references.) (AEF)

The goal of this study is to show how some concepts and techniques from disciplines outside Instructional Systems Development (ISD) have the potential to extend and enhance the traditional view of ISD practice when they are employed very early in the ISD process. The concepts and techniques employed were user-centered in design and usability, and the context was an instructional development project, Indiana University Center for Excellence in Education's (CEE) Virtual Textbook, in the earliest stages of design. One component of the Virtual Textbook is an interactive whiteboard which students will use during groupwork activities. The major goal for the interactive whiteboard study was to understand how representative virtual textbook users, high school students, would interact with the whiteboard with the fewest possible imposed restrictions of an established interface. Five groups of students were videotaped as they constructed a timeline depicting the history of rock and roll music. Findings from sessions and results from discussions with designers are discussed. Each student group employed common strategies and tactics to manipulate either a picture or text item on the simulated shared space. Each group also expressed similar social characteristics in order to manage and complete the timeline. Common strategies and tactics include types of moves; command language; students' language; shared space maintenance; item maintenance; and shared space navigation. Common social aspects include common ownership; turn-taking; strategy discussions; limited collaborative skills; and need to consult at close range. Designers had four major types of reactions to the findings and viewing of videotaped sessions: (1) proposing new and revised features; (2) reconsidering assumptions about students using the whiteboard; (3) questioning the design of the usability sessions; and (4) posing questions to be answered in future usability sessions. (Contains 11 references.) (MAS)

This 1993 study attempts to define the size and scope of state-wide economic activity generated by the arts in California. The analysis is based on data from surveys of nonprofit arts organization and five case studies. The case studies, which provided context for the core research, include examinations of: (1) artists in Los Angeles County; (2) the motion picture and television industry in California; (3) seven California festivals; (4) art and auto design in California; and (5) the manufacturing of musical instruments in California. Survey and case study findings indicate: (1) the economics of the nonprofit arts sector are robust, with $2.159 billion in economic activity and 115,153 jobs in 1993. (2) Los Angeles County artists are deeply involved in the community and arts as volunteers, contributors to charity, and participants in commercial and nonprofit art worlds, and have average incomes of $38,000 a year. (3) The motion picture and television industry employs a core staff of 50,000 Californians with average salaries of $80,000 in 1992. (4) Cultural tourism is a growth industry for the state with festivals being a strong attraction for tourism. For example, the Half Moon Bay Main Street Beautification Committee spent $70,000 on their Art and Pumpkin Festival and generated $10.5 million including $79,815 in local sales tax. (5) Art and auto design produces $47 million in business revenues and employs more than 400 people. (6) The manufacturing of musical instruments results in $75 million in wages and salaries by the $500 million industry. The arts are found to be a significant basis of California's economic strength. The report includes an "Executive Summary," charts, statistical tables, sample surveys, and acknowledgements. (MM)

Using data from federal government records and professional membership organizations, this study examines trends in demographics, education, employment, and earnings of architects and individuals in design arts occupations between 1940-1990. Findings indicate that: (1) participation in architecture and design occupations has increased slightly as a percentage of the experienced labor force and (2) significantly as part of the arts labor force. (3) The majority of participants in these occupations are between 25-44 years of age. (4) Architecture and design occupations remain predominantly white, male professions. (5) Only in the decorator profession does participation by women exceed that of men. (6) The Northeast and Midwest have lost their historic dominance in the architecture and design professions. (7) College experience has increased for participants in these professions. (8) The percentage of self employed architects has decreased, the percentage of self employed designers has increased. High levels of part time employment among decorators and designers reflect the large percentage of women in these professions. (9) Architectural receipts of $10 billion and graphic arts receipts of $3.2 billion were recorded in 1987. (10) Median income of architects and those in design professions was above that of the labor force average in 1989. Aspects of professionalism and competition, design deficits, and aesthetic utopian attitudes are discussed. Contains charts, statistical tables, and 58 references. (NP)

The Layers of Necessity Model developed by M. Tessmer and J. F. Wedman (1990 and following) proposes that designers create multiple layers of instructional design (ID) activities depending on the particularities of different design situations. To enrich the understanding of the model, a replication was conducted of a study conducted in 1992. Subjects were 66 members of the National Society for Performance and Instruction (NSPI) (Canada). The questionnaire asked how often subjects performed particular activities in ID in a variety of contexts. Questions about the individual's introduction to ID and the references the subject found most useful were added. Responses indicate that there is a consensus among practitioners that the 11 listed tasks form the core of the ID process. While some respondents added tasks, others deleted some to emphasize different aspects of ID. Although there was great heterogeneity of introduction to ID, responses were surprisingly homogeneous. Differences between these responses and those of the previous study are analyzed. One table presents survey findings. (Contains 6 references.) (SLD)

The role of planning in the design of digital circuits was studied in two experiments. One compared the planning-related activities of expert designers and beginning students of design, and the other looked at the effect on circuit-design processes of forcing students to construct a global plan. In experiment 1, five undergraduate students (novices) and two advanced graduate students with outside experience (experts) designed a one-bit full subtracter, taking several design constraints into account. Subject think-aloud protocols were videotaped and analyzed. Only one of the experts formulated a global plan before beginning the problem; undergraduate students did not formulate global plans but did exhibit local planning. More cross-component planning was conducted by students who were deemed more skillful by instructors. In the second experiment, 20 undergraduate and graduate students performed the same problem and a job-skill problem. Analyses suggest that at the group level there is no effect of planning on errors nor on attempts at optimization. Forcing formulation of a global plan does not mean that subjects are able to carry it out. (Contains 13 references.) (SLD)

This report characterizes human problem solving in digital circuit design. Protocols of 11 different designers with varying degrees of training were analyzed by identifying the designers' problem solving strategies and discussing activity patterns that differentiate the designers. These methods are proposed as a tentative basis for assessing expertise in digital design. Throughout, it is argued that a comprehensive model of human design should integrate a variety of strategies, which until now have been proposed as individually sufficient models of human design problem solving. An automated tool for design and its assessment is described. This computerized tool will have a problem-description browsing tool, a high-level formalization and simulation tool, and circuit-diagram drawing and circuit-simulating tools. An appendix contains an example of the design process with four tables, one figure, and a distribution list. (Contains 20 references.) (Author/SLD)

Suggests that distance education instructors need to understand and apply important instructional design elements in order to successfully fulfill their role as instructional designers. Reviews the most recent literature pertaining to designing instruction in distance education. Identifies some key instructional design elements for teaching at a distance. Provides suggestions for their application in the distance education teaching process. (Author/AEF)