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Metabotropic glutamate receptor 7 (mGlu 7 ) is a G protein-coupled receptor that is preferentially found in the active zone of neurotransmitter release in the central nervous system (CNS). mGlu 7 plays a vital role in memory, learning, and neuronal development, rendering it a potential target for treating epilepsy, depression, and anxiety. The development of noninvasive imaging ligands targeting mGlu 7 could help elucidate the functional significance of mGlu 7 and accelerate drug discovery for neurological and psychiatric disorders. In this report, a novel carbon-11 labeled positron emission tomography (PET) tracer designated [ 11 C]18 (codenamed MG7-2109) was synthesized via 11 C-methylation in 23% decay-corrected radiochemical yield (RCY). In vitro serum stability, serum protein binding, in vitro autoradiography and ex vivo biodistribution studies of [ 11 C]18 were conducted. Preliminary PET imaging results revealed a homogeneous distribution of [ 11 C]18 and rapid clearance in rodent brains. This study provides valuable insights into the development of mGlu 7 -targeted PET tracer based on an isoxazolo(5,4-c)pyridine scaffold., Competing Interests: None., (AJNMMI Copyright © 2024.)

Many human diseases are the result of abnormal expression or activation of protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) and protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs). Not surprisingly, more than 30 tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are currently in clinical use and provide unique treatment options for many patients. PTPs on the other hand have long been regarded as "undruggable" and only recently have gained increased attention in drug discovery. Striatal-enriched tyrosine phosphatase (STEP) is a neuron-specific PTP that is overactive in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders, including Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, and fragile X syndrome. An emergent model suggests that the increase in STEP activity interferes with synaptic function and contributes to the characteristic cognitive and behavioral deficits present in these diseases. Prior efforts to generate STEP inhibitors with properties that warrant clinical development have largely failed. To identify novel STEP inhibitor scaffolds, we developed a biophysical, label-free high-throughput screening (HTS) platform based on the protein thermal shift (PTS) technology. In contrast to conventional HTS using STEP enzymatic assays, we found the PTS platform highly robust and capable of identifying true hits with confirmed STEP inhibitory activity and selectivity. This new platform promises to greatly advance STEP drug discovery and should be applicable to other PTP targets.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by neuronal and synaptic loss. One process that could contribute to this loss is the intracellular caspase cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) resulting in release of the toxic C-terminal 31-amino acid peptide APP-C31 along with the production of APPΔC31, full-length APP minus the C-terminal 31 amino acids. We previously found that a mutation in APP that prevents this caspase cleavage ameliorated synaptic loss and cognitive impairment in a murine AD model. Thus, inhibition of this cleavage is a reasonable target for new therapeutic development. In order to identify small molecules that inhibit the generation of APP-C31, we first used an APPΔC31 cleavage site-specific antibody to develop an AlphaLISA to screen several chemical compound libraries for the level of N-terminal fragment production. This antibody was also used to develop an ELISA for validation studies. In both high throughput screening (HTS) and validation testing, the ability of compounds to inhibit simvastatin- (HTS) or cerivastatin- (validation studies) induced caspase cleavage at the APP-D720 cleavage site was determined in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells stably transfected with wildtype (wt) human APP (CHO-7W). Several compounds, as well as control pan-caspase inhibitor Q-VD-OPh, inhibited APPΔC31 production (measured fragment) and rescued cell death in a dose-dependent manner. The effective compounds fell into several classes including SERCA inhibitors, inhibitors of Wnt signaling, and calcium channel antagonists. Further studies are underway to evaluate the efficacy of lead compounds - identified here using cells and tissues expressing wt human APP - in mouse models of AD expressing mutated human APP, as well as to identify additional compounds and determine the mechanisms by which they exert their effects.

A versatile continuous-flow synthesis of highly functionalized 1,2,4-oxadiazoles starting from carboxylic acids is reported. This process was applied to the multistep synthesis of imidazo[1,2- a ]pyridin-2-yl-1,2,4-oxadiazoles, using a three reactor, multistep continuous-flow system without isolation of intermediates. This continuous-flow method was successfully combined with a single-step liquid-liquid microextraction unit to remove high boiling point polar solvents and impurities and provides the target compounds in high purity with excellent overall yields.

Members of the Inhibitor of APoptosis (IAP) protein family suppress apoptosis within tumor cells, particularly in the context of immune cell-mediated killing by the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily cytokines. Most IAPs are opposed endogenously by the second mitochondrial activator of caspases (SMAC), which binds to selected baculovirus IAP repeat (BIR) domains of IAPs to displace interacting proteins. The development of SMAC mimetics as novel anticancer drugs has gained impetus, with several agents now in human clinical trials. To further understand the cellular mechanisms of SMAC mimetics, we focused on IAP family members cIAP1 and cIAP2, which are recruited to TNF receptor complexes where they support cell survival through NF-κB activation while suppressing apoptosis by preventing caspase activation. We established fluorescence polarization (FP) assays for the BIR2 and BIR3 domains of human cIAP1 and cIAP2 using fluorochrome-conjugated SMAC peptides as ligands. A library of SMAC mimetics was profiled using the FP assays to provide a unique structure activity relationship (SAR) analysis compared to previous assessments of binding to XIAP. Potent compounds displayed mean inhibitory binding constants (Ki) of 9 to 27 nM against the BIR3 domains of cIAP1 and cIAP2, respectively. Selected compounds were then characterized using cytotoxicity assays in which a cytokine-resistant human tumor cell line was sensitized to either TNF or lymphotoxin-α (LT-α). Cytotoxicity correlated closely with cIAP1 and cIAP2 BIR3 binding activity with the most potent compounds able to reduce cell viability by 50%. Further testing demonstrated that active compounds also inhibit RIP1 binding to BIR3 of cIAP1 and cIAP2 in vitro and reduce steady-state cIAP1 protein levels in cells. Altogether, these data inform the SAR for our SMAC mimetics with respect to cIAP1 and cIAP2, suggesting that these IAP family members play an important role in tumor cell resistance to cytotoxicity mediated by TNF and LT-α., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress activates three distinct signal transducers on the ER membrane. Inositol-requiring protein 1 (IRE1), the most conserved signal transducer, plays a key role in ER stress-mediated signaling. During ER stress, IRE1 initiates two discrete signaling cascades: the "adaptive" signaling cascade mediated by the XBP1 pathway and the "alarm" signaling cascade mediated by stress-activated protein kinase pathways. Fine-tuning of the balance between the adaptive and alarm signals contributes significantly to cellular fate under ER stress. Thus, we propose that the design of high-throughput screening (HTS) assays to selectively monitor IRE1 mediated-signaling would be desirable for drug discovery. To this end, we report the generation of stable human neural cell lines and development of cell-based HTS luciferase (Luc) reporter gene assays for the identification of pathway-specific chemical modulators of IRE1. We implemented a cell-based Luc assay using a chimeric CHOP-Gal4 transcription factor in 384-well format for monitoring IRE1 kinase-mediated p38MAPK activation and an unfolded response pathway element (URPE)-Luc cell-based assay in 1536-well format for monitoring IRE1's RNase-mediated activation of XBP1. Chemical library screening was successfully conducted with both the CHOP/Gal4-Luc cells and UPRE-Luc engineered cells. The studies demonstrate the feasibility of using these HTS assays for discovery of pathway-selective modulators of IRE1., (© 2015 Society for Laboratory Automation and Screening.)

Many oncogenic signals originate from abnormal protein-protein interactions that are potential targets for small molecule inhibitors. However, the therapeutic disruption of these interactions has proved elusive. We report here that the naturally-occurring triterpenoid celastrol is an inhibitor of the c-Myc (Myc) oncoprotein, which is over-expressed in many human cancers. Most Myc inhibitors prevent the association between Myc and its obligate heterodimerization partner Max via their respective bHLH-ZIP domains. In contrast, we show that celastrol binds to and alters the quaternary structure of the pre-formed dimer and abrogates its DNA binding. Celastrol contains a reactive quinone methide group that promiscuously forms Michael adducts with numerous target proteins and other free sulfhydryl-containing molecules. Interestingly, triterpenoid derivatives lacking the quinone methide showed enhanced specificity and potency against Myc. As with other Myc inhibitors, these analogs rapidly reduced the abundance of Myc protein and provoked a global energy crisis marked by ATP depletion, neutral lipid accumulation, AMP-activated protein kinase activation, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. They also inhibited the proliferation of numerous established human cancer cell lines as well as primary myeloma explants that were otherwise resistant to JQ1, a potent indirect Myc inhibitor. N-Myc amplified neuroblastoma cells showed similar responses and, in additional, underwent neuronal differentiation. These studies indicate that certain pharmacologically undesirable properties of celastrol such as Michael adduct formation can be eliminated while increasing selectivity and potency toward Myc and N-Myc. This, together with their low in vivo toxicity, provides a strong rationale for pursuing the development of additional Myc-specific triterpenoid derivatives.

Combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) is able to suppress HIV-1 replication to undetectable levels. However, the persistence of latent viral reservoirs allows for a rebound of viral load upon cessation of therapy. Thus, therapeutic strategies to eradicate the viral latent reservoir are critically needed. Employing a targeted RNAi screen, we identified the ubiquitin ligase BIRC2 (cIAP1), a repressor of the noncanonical NF-κB pathway, as a potent negative regulator of LTR-dependent HIV-1 transcription. Depletion of BIRC2 through treatment with small molecule antagonists known as Smac mimetics enhanced HIV-1 transcription, leading to a reversal of latency in a JLat latency model system. Critically, treatment of resting CD4+ T cells isolated from ART-suppressed patients with the histone deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi) panobinostat together with Smac mimetics resulted in synergistic activation of the latent reservoir. These data implicate Smac mimetics as useful agents for shock-and-kill strategies to eliminate the latent HIV reservoir., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Many tumors become addicted to autophagy for survival, suggesting inhibition of autophagy as a potential broadly applicable cancer therapy. ULK1/Atg1 is the only serine/threonine kinase in the core autophagy pathway and thus represents an excellent drug target. Despite recent advances in the understanding of ULK1 activation by nutrient deprivation, how ULK1 promotes autophagy remains poorly understood. Here, we screened degenerate peptide libraries to deduce the optimal ULK1 substrate motif and discovered 15 phosphorylation sites in core autophagy proteins that were verified as in vivo ULK1 targets. We utilized these ULK1 substrates to perform a cell-based screen to identify and characterize a potent ULK1 small molecule inhibitor. The compound SBI-0206965 is a highly selective ULK1 kinase inhibitor in vitro and suppressed ULK1-mediated phosphorylation events in cells, regulating autophagy and cell survival. SBI-0206965 greatly synergized with mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitors to kill tumor cells, providing a strong rationale for their combined use in the clinic., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The rational design of inhibitors of the bHLH-ZIP oncoprotein c-Myc is hampered by a lack of structure in its monomeric state. We describe herein the design of novel, low-molecular-weight, synthetic α-helix mimetics that recognize helical c-Myc in its transcriptionally active coiled-coil structure in association with its obligate bHLH-ZIP partner Max. These compounds perturb the heterodimer's binding to its canonical E-box DNA sequence without causing protein-protein dissociation, heralding a new mechanistic class of "direct" c-Myc inhibitors. In addition to electrophoretic mobility shift assays, this model was corroborated by further biophysical methods, including NMR spectroscopy and surface plasmon resonance. Several compounds demonstrated a 2-fold or greater selectivity for c-Myc-Max heterodimers over Max-Max homodimers with IC50 values as low as 5.6 μM. Finally, these compounds inhibited the proliferation of c-Myc-expressing cell lines in a concentration-dependent manner that correlated with the loss of expression of a c-Myc-dependent reporter plasmid despite the fact that c-Myc-Max heterodimers remained intact.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress causes neuronal dysfunction followed by cell death and is recognized as a feature of many neurodegenerative diseases. Using a phenotypic screen, we recently identified benzodiazepinone derivatives that reduce ER stress-mediated apoptosis in a rat neuronal progenitor cell line (CSM14.1). Herein we describe how structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies around these screening hits led to compounds that display robust cytoprotective activity against thapsigargin-induced ER stress in SH-SY5Y and H4 human neuronal cell lines. We demonstrate that the most potent of these derivatives, compound 4hh, inhibits the activation of p38 MAP kinase (p38) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), protein kinases that are downstream signal effectors of the unfolded protein response (UPR). Compound 4hh specifically protects against thapsigargin-induced cell death and displays no protection against other insults known to induce cellular stress or activate p38. However, compound 4hh provides moderate inhibition of p38 activity stimulated by compounds that disrupt calcium homeostasis. Our data indicate that probe compound 4hh is a valuable small molecule tool that can be used to investigate the effects of ER stress on human neurons. This approach may provide the basis for the future development of therapeutics for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Ovarian cancer patients are typically treated with carboplatin and paclitaxel, but suffer a high rate of relapse with recalcitrant disease. This challenge has fostered the development of novel approaches to treatment, including antagonists of the 'inhibitor of apoptosis proteins' (IAPs), also called SMAC mimetics, as apoptosis-inducing agents whose action is opposed by caspase inhibitors. Surprisingly, IAP antagonist plus caspase inhibitor (IZ) treatment selectively induced a tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα)-dependent death among several apoptosis-resistant cell lines and patient xenografts. The induction of necroptosis was common in ovarian cancer, with expression of catalytically active receptor-interacting protein kinase-3 (RIPK3) necessary for death, and in fact sufficient to compromise survival of RIPK3-negative, necroptosis-resistant ovarian cancer cells. The formation of a necrosome-like complex with a second critical effector, receptor-interacting serine-threonine kinase-1 (RIPK1), was observed. RIPK1, RIPK3 and TNFα were required for the induction of death, as agents that inhibit the function of any of these targets prevented cell death. Abundant RIPK3 transcript is common in serous ovarian cancers, suggesting that further evaluation and targeting of this RIPK3-dependent pathway may be of clinical benefit.

We report the discovery and characterization of a series of benzoisothiazolone inhibitors of PHOSPHO1, a newly identified soluble phosphatase implicated in skeletal mineralization and soft tissue ossification abnormalities. High-throughput screening (HTS) of a small molecule library led to the identification of benzoisothiazolones as potent and selective inhibitors of PHOSPHO1. Critical structural requirements for activity were determined, and the compounds were subsequently derivatized and measured for in vitro activity and ADME parameters including metabolic stability and permeability. On the basis of its overall profile the benzoisothiazolone analogue 2q was selected as MLPCN probe ML086., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

As part of our ongoing small-molecule metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptor positive allosteric modulator (PAM) research, we performed structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies around a series of group II mGlu PAMs. Initial analogues exhibited weak activity as mGlu2 receptor PAMs and no activity at mGlu3. Compound optimization led to the identification of potent mGlu2/3 selective PAMs with no in vitro activity at mGlu1,4-8 or 45 other CNS receptors. In vitro pharmacological characterization of representative compound 44 indicated agonist-PAM activity toward mGlu2 and PAM activity at mGlu3. The most potent mGlu2/3 PAMs were characterized in assays predictive of ADME/T and pharmacokinetic (PK) properties, allowing the discovery of systemically active mGlu2/3 PAMs. On the basis of its overall profile, compound 74 was selected for behavioral studies and was shown to dose-dependently decrease cocaine self-administration in rats after intraperitoneal administration. These mGlu2/3 receptor PAMs have significant potential as small molecule tools for investigating group II mGlu pharmacology.

A practical and efficient method for the synthesis of substituted 2-aminopyridines from pyridine N-oxides is reported. Yields of purified, isolated products of up to 84% are observed for the one-pot, two-step process. The reaction involves an in situ deprotection of an isolable N-formylaminopyridine intermediate and facilitates the synthesis of 2-aminopyridines for which other methods fail.

Glutamate excitotoxicity contributes to the neuronal injury and death associated with many neurodegenerative diseases. The glutamate transporter EAAT2, which is primarily localized on astrocytic processes, facilitates glutamate clearance from synapses, thus preventing neuronal damage. In this issue of the JCI, Kong et al. characterize a compound that upregulates EAAT2 translation, thereby increasing glutamate uptake by glial cells. Furthermore, this strategy for alleviating excitotoxicity was found to be beneficial in mouse models of both amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and epilepsy, suggesting that future development in this chemical series may lead to much-needed treatments for these disorders.

TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is a promising anticancer agent because it shows apoptosis-inducing activity in transformed, but not in normal, cells. As with most anticancer agents, however, its clinical use is restricted by either inherent or acquired resistance by cancer cells. We demonstrate here that small-molecule SMAC mimetics that antagonize the inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAP) potently sensitize previously resistant human cancer cell lines, but not normal cells, to TRAIL-induced apoptosis, and that they do so in a caspase-8-dependent manner. We further show that the compounds have no cytotoxicity as single agents. Also, we demonstrate that several IAP family members likely participate in the modulation of cellular sensitivity to TRAIL. Finally, we note that the compounds that sensitize cancer cells to TRAIL are the most efficacious in binding to X-linked IAP, and in inducing cellular-IAP (cIAP)-1 and cIAP-2 degradation. Our studies thus describe valuable compounds that allow elucidation of the signaling events occurring in TRAIL resistance, and demonstrate that these agents act as potent TRAIL-sensitizing agents in a variety of cancer cell lines.

The field of study concerning promotion and/or inhibition of angiogenesis has gathered much attention in the scientific community. A great deal of work has been invested towards defining reproducible assays to gauge for promotion or inhibition of angiogenesis in response to drug treatments or growth conditions. Two common components of these assays were noted by our group to have an unexpected and previously unreported interaction. Suramin is a commercially available compound, commonly used as a positive control for in vitro angiogenic inhibition assays. Matrigel is a popular extracellular substrate that supports angiogenic network formation when endothelial cells are cultured on its surface. However, our group demonstrated that suramin alone (without the presence of cells) will actively dissolve Matrigel, causing the extracellular matrix to transition from the gel-like physical state to a more liquid state. This causes cells on the Matrigel to congregate and sink to the bottom of the well. Therefore, previous observations of inhibition of endothelial cell angiogenesis through the incubation with suramin (including previous observations made by our group) are, largely, an artefact caused by suramin and matrix interaction rather than suramin and cells interaction, as previously reported. Our results suggest that the presence of sulphate groups and amphiphilic properties of suramin are likely responsible for the disruption of the matrix layer. We believe that this information is of prime importance to anyone using similar in vitro models, or employing suramin in any therapy or drug development assays., (© 2013 The Authors. International Journal of Experimental Pathology © 2013 International Journal of Experimental Pathology.)

We recently reported the systematic ligand-based rational design and synthesis of monovalent Smac mimetics that bind preferentially to the BIR2 domain of the anti-apoptotic protein XIAP. Expanded structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies around these peptidomimetics led to compounds with significantly improved selectivity (>60-fold) for the BIR2 domain versus the BIR3 domain of XIAP. The potent and highly selective IAP antagonist 8q (ML183) sensitized TRAIL-resistant prostate cancer cells to apoptotic cell death, highlighting the merit of this probe compound as a valuable tool to investigate the biology of XIAP., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

A series of novel, potent antagonists of the inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) were synthesized in a highly convergent and rapid fashion (≤6 steps) using the Ugi four-component reaction as the key step, thus enabling rapid optimization of binding potency. These IAP antagonists compete with caspases 3, 7, and 9 for inhibition by X chromosome-linked IAP (XIAP) and bind strongly (nanomolar binding constants) to several crucial members of the IAP family of cancer pro-survival proteins to promote apoptosis, with a particularly unique selectivity for melanoma IAP (ML-IAP). Experiments in cell culture revealed powerful cancer cell growth inhibitory activity in multiple (breast, ovarian, and prostate) cell lines with single agent toxicity at low nanomolar levels against SKOV-3 human ovarian carcinoma cells. Administration of the compounds to human foreskin fibroblast cells revealed no general toxicity to normal cells. Furthermore, computational modeling was performed, revealing key contacts between the IAP proteins and antagonists, suggesting a structural basis for the observed potency.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder with few therapeutic options. While several gene mutations have been implicated in ALS, the exact cause of neuronal dysfunction is unknown and motor neurons of affected individuals display numerous cellular abnormalities. Ongoing efforts to develop novel ALS treatments involve the identification of small molecules targeting specific mechanisms of neuronal pathology, including glutamate excitotoxicity, mutant protein aggregation, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, loss of trophic factors, oxidative stress, or neuroinflammation. Herein, we review recent advances in the discovery and preclinical characterization of lead compounds that may ultimately provide novel drugs to treat patients suffering from ALS.

Medial vascular calcification (MVC) is common in patients with chronic kidney disease, obesity, and aging. MVC is an actively regulated process that resembles skeletal mineralization, resulting from chondro-osteogenic transformation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Here, we used mineralizing murine VSMCs to study the expression of PHOSPHO1, a phosphatase that participates in the first step of matrix vesicles-mediated initiation of mineralization during endochondral ossification. Wild-type (WT) VSMCs cultured under calcifying conditions exhibited increased Phospho1 gene expression and Phospho1(-/-) VSMCs failed to mineralize in vitro. Using natural PHOSPHO1 substrates, potent and specific inhibitors of PHOSPHO1 were identified via high-throughput screening and mechanistic analysis and two of these inhibitors, designated MLS-0390838 and MLS-0263839, were selected for further analysis. Their effectiveness in preventing VSMC calcification by targeting PHOSPHO1 function was assessed, alone and in combination with a potent tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) inhibitor MLS-0038949. PHOSPHO1 inhibition by MLS-0263839 in mineralizing WT cells (cultured with added inorganic phosphate) reduced calcification in culture to 41.8% ± 2.0% of control. Combined inhibition of PHOSPHO1 by MLS-0263839 and TNAP by MLS-0038949 significantly reduced calcification to 20.9% ± 0.74% of control. Furthermore, the dual inhibition strategy affected the expression of several mineralization-related enzymes while increasing expression of the smooth muscle cell marker Acta2. We conclude that PHOSPHO1 plays a critical role in VSMC mineralization and that "phosphatase inhibition" may be a useful therapeutic strategy to reduce MVC., (Copyright © 2013 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.)

The optimization of active hits, commonly derived from high-throughput screening campaigns (see Chapters 2 and 4), into promising small-molecule lead compounds is one of the fundamental steps in early drug discovery. Directions taken during this stage can have important consequences reaching through lead optimization into preclinical development and beyond. Considering the ever-increasing costs of preclinical as well as clinical development phases (DiMasi et al., J Health Econ 22:151-185, 2003) the choices made at the early stages of drug discovery can have a real impact on the likelihood of the best lead becoming a viable candidate (Bleicher et al., Nat Rev Drug Discov 2:369-378, 2003). Thus it is important to utilize proven and robust methodologies to turn promising hits into suitable lead series with propitious characteristics. Here, we describe such an approach using the example of a tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (see Chapter 3) inhibitor developed in our group (Sidique et al., Bioorg Med Chem Lett 19:222-225, 2009).

Compounds that modulate metabotropic glutamate subtype 2 (mGlu(2)) receptors have the potential to treat several disorders of the central nervous system (CNS) including drug dependence. Herein we describe the synthesis and structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies around a series of mGlu(2) receptor positive allosteric modulators (PAMs). The effects of N-substitution (R(1)) and substitutions on the aryl ring (R(2)) were identified as key areas for SAR exploration (Figure 3). Investigation of the effects of varying substituents in both the isoindolinone (2) and benzisothiazolone (3) series led to compounds with improved in vitro potency and/or efficacy. In addition, several analogues exhibited promising pharmacokinetic (PK) properties. Furthermore, compound 2 was shown to dose-dependently decrease nicotine self-administration in rats following oral administration. Our data, showing for the first time efficacy of an mGlu(2) receptor PAM in this in vivo model, suggest potential utility for the treatment of nicotine dependence in humans.

Herein we report the discovery and SAR of a novel metabotropic glutamate receptor 3 (mGlu(3)) NAM probe (ML289) with 15-fold selectivity versus mGlu(2). The mGlu(3) NAM was discovered via a 'molecular switch' from a closely related, potent mGlu(5) positive allosteric modulator (PAM), VU0092273. This NAM (VU0463597, ML289) displays an IC(50) value of 0.66 μM and is inactive against mGlu(5)., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The hematopoietic protein tyrosine phosphatase (HePTP) is implicated in the development of blood cancers through its ability to negatively regulate the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) ERK1/2 and p38. Small-molecule modulators of HePTP activity may become valuable in treating hematopoietic malignancies such as T cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) and acute myelogenous leukemia (AML). Moreover, such compounds will further elucidate the regulation of MAPKs in hematopoietic cells. Although transient activation of MAPKs is crucial for growth and proliferation, prolonged activation of these important signaling molecules induces differentiation, cell cycle arrest, cell senescence, and apoptosis. Specific HePTP inhibitors may promote the latter and thereby may halt the growth of cancer cells. Here, we report the development of a small molecule that augments ERK1/2 and p38 activation in human T cells, specifically by inhibiting HePTP. Structure-activity relationship analysis, in silico docking studies, and mutagenesis experiments reveal how the inhibitor achieves selectivity for HePTP over related phosphatases by interacting with unique amino acid residues in the periphery of the highly conserved catalytic pocket. Importantly, we utilize this compound to show that pharmacological inhibition of HePTP not only augments but also prolongs activation of ERK1/2 and, especially, p38. Moreover, we present similar effects in leukocytes from mice intraperitoneally injected with the inhibitor at doses as low as 3 mg/kg. Our results warrant future studies with this probe compound that may establish HePTP as a new drug target for acute leukemic conditions.

The multistep continuous flow assembly of 2-( 1H -indol-3-yl)thiazoles using a Syrris AFRICA ® synthesis station is reported. Sequential Hantzsch thiazole synthesis, deketalization and Fischer indole synthesis provides rapid and efficient access to highly functionalized, pharmacologically significant 2-( 1H -indol-3-yl)thiazoles. These complex, drug-like small molecules are generated in reaction times of less than 15 min and in high yields (38%-82% over three chemical steps without isolation of intermediates).

Congenital disorders of glycosylation (CDG) are rare genetic disorders due to impaired glycosylation. The patients with subtypes CDG-Ia and CDG-Ib have mutations in the genes encoding phosphomannomutase 2 (PMM2) and phosphomannose isomerase (MPI or PMI), respectively. PMM2 (mannose 6-phosphate → mannose 1-phosphate) and MPI (mannose 6-phosphate ⇔ fructose 6-phosphate) deficiencies reduce the metabolic flux of mannose 6-phosphate (Man-6-P) into glycosylation, resulting in unoccupied N-glycosylation sites. Both PMM2 and MPI compete for the same substrate, Man-6-P. Daily mannose doses reverse most of the symptoms of MPI-deficient CDG-Ib patients. However, CDG-Ia patients do not benefit from mannose supplementation because >95% Man-6-P is catabolized by MPI. We hypothesized that inhibiting MPI enzymatic activity would provide more Man-6-P for glycosylation and possibly benefit CDG-Ia patients with residual PMM2 activity. Here we show that MLS0315771, a potent MPI inhibitor from the benzoisothiazolone series, diverts Man-6-P toward glycosylation in various cell lines including fibroblasts from CDG-Ia patients and improves N-glycosylation. Finally, we show that MLS0315771 increases mannose metabolic flux toward glycosylation in zebrafish embryos.

Eph receptor tyrosine kinases and ephrin ligands control many physiological and pathological processes, and molecules interfering with their interaction are useful probes to elucidate their complex biological functions. Moreover, targeting Eph receptors might enable new strategies to inhibit cancer progression and pathological angiogenesis as well as promote nerve regeneration. Because our previous work suggested the importance of the salicylic acid group in antagonistic small molecules targeting Eph receptors, we screened a series of salicylic acid derivatives to identify novel Eph receptor antagonists. This identified a disalicylic acid-furanyl derivative that inhibits ephrin-A5 binding to EphA4 with an IC(50) of 3 μm in ELISAs. This compound, which appears to bind to the ephrin-binding pocket of EphA4, also targets several other Eph receptors. Furthermore, it inhibits EphA2 and EphA4 tyrosine phosphorylation in cells stimulated with ephrin while not affecting phosphorylation of EphB2, which is not a target receptor. In endothelial cells, the disalicylic acid-furanyl derivative inhibits EphA2 phosphorylation in response to TNFα and capillary-like tube formation on Matrigel, two effects that depend on EphA2 interaction with endogenous ephrin-A1. These findings suggest that salicylic acid derivatives could be used as starting points to design new small molecule antagonists of Eph receptors., (© 2011 John Wiley & Sons A/S.)

The first example of a sequential heterocycle formation/multicomponent reaction using an automated continuous flow microreactor assembly is reported. Consecutive Hantzsch thiazole synthesis, deketalization, and Biginelli multicomponent reaction provides rapid and efficient access to highly functionalized, pharmacologically significant 5-(thiazol-2-yl)-3,4-dihydropyrimidin-2( 1H )-ones without isolation of intermediates. These complex small molecules are generated in reaction times less than 15 min and in high yields (39-46%) over three continuous chemical steps.

Group II metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors consist of the metabotropic glutamate 2 (mGlu(2)) and metabotropic glutamate 3 (mGlu(3)) receptor subtypes which modulate glutamate transmission by second messenger activation to negatively regulate the activity of adenylyl cyclase. Excessive accumulation of glutamate in the perisynaptic extracellular region triggers mGlu(2) and mGlu(3) receptors to inhibit further release of glutamate. There is growing evidence that the modulation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by small molecule modulators of Group II mGlu receptors has significant potential for the treatment of several neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases. This review provides an overview of recent progress on the synthesis and pharmacological characterization of positive and negative allosteric modulators of the Group II mGlu receptors.

We report the systematic rational design and synthesis of new monovalent Smac mimetics that bind preferentially to the BIR2 domain of the anti-apoptotic protein XIAP. Characterization of compounds in vitro (including 9i; ML101) led to the determination of key structural requirements for BIR2 binding affinity. Compounds 9h and 9j sensitized TRAIL-resistant breast cancer cells to apoptotic cell death, highlighting the value of these probe compounds as tools to investigate the biology of XIAP., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

We report the discovery and validation of a series of benzoisothiazolones as potent inhibitors of phosphomannose isomerase (PMI), an enzyme that converts mannose-6-phosphate (Man-6-P) into fructose-6-phosphate (Fru-6-P) and, more importantly, competes with phosphomannomutase 2 (PMM2) for Man-6-P, diverting this substrate from critical protein glycosylation events. In congenital disorder of glycosylation type Ia, PMM2 activity is compromised; thus, PMI inhibition is a potential strategy for the development of therapeutics. High-throughput screening (HTS) and subsequent chemical optimization led to the identification of a novel class of benzoisothiazolones as potent PMI inhibitors having little or no PMM2 inhibition. Two complementary synthetic routes were developed, enabling the critical structural requirements for activity to be determined, and the compounds were subsequently profiled in biochemical and cellular assays to assess efficacy. The most promising compounds were also profiled for bioavailability parameters, including metabolic stability, plasma stability, and permeability. The pharmacokinetic profile of a representative of this series (compound 19; ML089) was also assessed, demonstrating the potential of this series for in vivo efficacy when dosed orally in disease models.

The modification of 3'-((2-cyclopentyl-6,7-dimethyl-1-oxo-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-5-yloxy)methyl)biphenyl-4-carboxylic acid (BINA, 1) by incorporating heteroatoms into the structure and replacing the cyclopentyl moiety led to the development of new mGluR2 positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) with optimized potency and superior druglike properties. These analogues are more potent than 1 in vitro and are highly selective for mGluR2 vs other mGluR subtypes. They have significantly improved pharmacokinetic (PK) properties, with excellent oral bioavailability and brain penetration. The benzisothiazol-3-one derivative 14 decreased cocaine self-administration in rats, providing proof-of-concept for the use of mGluR2 PAMs for the treatment of cocaine dependence.

The first one-step, continuous flow synthesis of pyrrole-3-carboxylic acids directly from tert-butyl acetoacetates, amines, and 2-bromoketones is reported. The HBr generated as a byproduct in the Hantzsch reaction was utilized in the flow method to hydrolyze the t-butyl esters in situ to provide the corresponding acids in a single microreactor. The protocol was used in the multistep synthesis of pyrrole-3-carboxamides, including two CB1 inverse agonists, directly from commercially available starting materials in a single continuous process.

Metabotropic glutamate receptor 2/3 (mGluR2/3) agonists were shown previously to nonselectively decrease both cocaine- and food-maintained responding in rats. mGluR2 positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) may represent improved therapeutic compounds because of their modulatory properties and higher selectivity for mGluR2. We analyzed the effects of the selective, brain penetrant, and systemically active mGluR2 PAM potassium 3'-([(2-cyclopentyl-6-7-dimethyl-1-oxo-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-5-yl)oxy]methyl)biphenyl l-4-carboxylate (BINA) and the mGluR2/3 agonist LY379268 on intravenous cocaine self-administration and cocaine-seeking behavior in rats that had short (1 h, ShA) or long (6 h, LgA) access to cocaine. The effects of BINA on food responding and food-seeking behavior were also analyzed. Finally, we examined the effects of BINA on brain reward function and cocaine-induced reward enhancement using the intracranial self-stimulation procedure. BINA decreased cocaine self-administration in both ShA and LgA rats, with no effect on food self-administration. Alternatively, LY379268 nonselectively decreased both cocaine and food self-administration. BINA decreased cue-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking with no effect on food seeking. The cocaine-induced enhancement of brain reward function was blocked by BINA, although the highest doses of BINA decreased brain reward function when administered alone, suggesting additive, rather than interactive, effects of BINA and cocaine. In conclusion, BINA attenuated the reinforcing and counteracted the reward-enhancing effects of cocaine and decreased cue-induced cocaine-seeking behavior, without affecting behaviors motivated by food reinforcement. The higher selectivity of BINA compared with an mGluR2/3 agonist for drug- vs food-motivated behaviors suggests a therapeutic role for mGluR2 PAMs for the treatment of cocaine addiction and possibly other drugs of abuse.

The first continuous flow synthesis of imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine-2-carboxylic acids directly from 2-aminopyridines and bromopyruvic acid has been developed, representing a significant advance over the corresponding in-flask method. The process was applied to the multistep synthesis of imidazo[1,2-a]pyridine-2-carboxamides, including a Mur ligase inhibitor, using a two microreactor, multistep continuous flow process without isolation of intermediates.

We report the characterization and optimization of drug-like small molecule inhibitors of tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP), an enzyme critical for the regulation of extracellular matrix calcification during bone formation and growth. High-throughput screening (HTS) of a small molecule library led to the identification of arylsulfonamides as potent and selective inhibitors of TNAP. Critical structural requirements for activity were determined, and the compounds were subsequently profiled for in vitro activity and bioavailability parameters including metabolic stability and permeability. The plasma levels following subcutaneous administration of a member of the lead series in rat was determined, demonstrating the potential of these TNAP inhibitors as systemically active therapeutic agents to target various diseases involving soft tissue calcification. A representative member of the series was also characterized in mechanistic and kinetic studies.

West Nile Virus (WNV) is a potentially deadly mosquito-borne flavivirus which has spread rapidly throughout the world. Currently there is no effective vaccine against flaviviral infections. We previously reported the identification of pyrazole ester derivatives as allosteric inhibitors of WNV NS2B-NS3 proteinase. These compounds degrade rapidly in pH 8 buffer with a half life of 1-2h. We now report the design, synthesis and in vitro evaluation of pyrazole derivatives that are inhibitors of WNV NS2B-NS3 proteinase with greatly improved stability in the assay medium.

The accumulation of unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is caused by many disease-relevant conditions, inducing conserved signaling events collectively known as the unfolded protein response. When ER stress is excessive or prolonged, cell death (usually occurring by apoptosis) is triggered. We undertook a chemical biology approach for investigating mechanisms of ER stress-induced cell death. Using a cell-based high throughput screening assay to identify compounds that rescued a neuronal cell line from thapsigargin-induced cell death, we identified benzodiazepinones that selectively inhibit cell death caused by inducers of ER stress (thapsigargin and tunicamycin) but not by inducers of extrinsic (tumor necrosis factor) or intrinsic (mitochondrial) cell death pathways. The compounds displayed activity in several cell lines and primary cultured neurons. Mechanism of action studies revealed that these compounds inhibit ER stress-induced activation of p38 MAPK and kinases responsible for c-Jun phosphorylation. Active benzodiazepinones suppressed cell death at the level of apoptotic signal kinase-1 (ASK1) within the IRE1 pathway but without directly inhibiting the kinase activity of ASK1 or >400 other kinases tested. Rather, active compounds enhanced phosphorylation of serine 967 of ASK1, promoting ASK1 binding to 14-3-3, an event associated with suppression of ASK1 function. Reducing ASK1 protein expression using small interfering RNA also protected cells from ER stress-induced apoptosis, confirming the importance of this protein kinase. Taken together, these findings demonstrate an essential role for ASK1 in cell death induced by ER stress. The compounds identified may prove useful for revealing endogenous mechanisms that regulate inhibitory phosphorylation of ASK1.

Tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) plays a central role in regulating extracellular matrix calcification during bone formation and growth. High-throughput screening (HTS) for small molecule TNAP inhibitors led to the identification of hits in the sub-micromolar potency range. We report the design, synthesis and in vitro evaluation of a series of pyrazole derivatives of a screening hit which are potent TNAP inhibitors exhibiting IC(50) values as low as 5nM. A representative of the series was characterized in kinetic studies and determined to have a mode of inhibition not previously observed for TNAP inhibitors.

The erythropoietin-producing hepatocellular (Eph) family of receptor tyrosine kinases regulates a multitude of physiological and pathological processes. Despite the numerous possible research and therapeutic applications of agents capable of modulating Eph receptor function, no small molecule inhibitors targeting the extracellular domain of these receptors have been identified. We have performed a high throughput screen to search for small molecules that inhibit ligand binding to the extracellular domain of the EphA4 receptor. This yielded a 2,5-dimethylpyrrolyl benzoic acid derivative able to inhibit the interaction of EphA4 with a peptide ligand as well as the natural ephrin ligands. Evaluation of a series of analogs identified an isomer with similar inhibitory properties and other less potent compounds. The two isomeric compounds act as competitive inhibitors, suggesting that they target the high affinity ligand-binding pocket of EphA4 and inhibit ephrin-A5 binding to EphA4 with K(i) values of 7 and 9 mum in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Interestingly, despite the ability of each ephrin ligand to promiscuously bind many Eph receptors, the two compounds selectively target EphA4 and the closely related EphA2 receptor. The compounds also inhibit ephrin-induced phosphorylation of EphA4 and EphA2 in cells, without affecting cell viability or the phosphorylation of other receptor tyrosine kinases. Furthermore, the compounds inhibit EphA4-mediated growth cone collapse in retinal explants and EphA2-dependent retraction of the cell periphery in prostate cancer cells. These data demonstrate that the Eph receptor-ephrin interface can be targeted by inhibitory small molecules and suggest that the two compounds identified will be useful to discriminate the activities of EphA4 and EphA2 from those of other co-expressed Eph receptors that are activated by the same ephrin ligands. Furthermore, the newly identified inhibitors represent possible leads for the development of therapies to treat pathologies in which EphA4 and EphA2 are involved, including nerve injuries and cancer.

(S)-(2)-5-ethynyl-3-(1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinyl)pyridine HCl (SIB-1508Y, Altinicline), is a subtype-selective neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) agonist. In rodents, SIB-1508Y exhibited antidepressant activity, reversed age-related decrements in vigilance, and improved motor and cognitive function in primate models of Parkinson's disease. The goal of the study was to explore neurochemical effects of SIB-1508Y and its isomer, SIB-1680WD. In vitro, SIB-1508Y increased dopamine (DA) release from slices of rat striatum, nucleus accumbens (NAc), olfactory tubercles (OT) and prefrontal cortices (PFC) in a concentration-dependent manner. Relative to its robust effects on DA release from various brain regions, SIB-1508Y was minimally effective at increasing NE release from hippocampus or PFC, and 5-HT release from PFC. SIB-1680WD was less potent and efficacious than SIB-1508Y, but did not act as a partial agonist. Subcutaneous injection of SIB-1508Y (10 mg/kg) increased striatal DA release and this release was sensitive to blockade by the non-competitive nAChR antagonist, mecamylamine (Mec). SIB-1508Y also increased hippocampal ACh release selectively without affecting striatal ACh release. Hippocampal ACh release evoked by SIB-1508Y was attenuated by nAChR antagonists Mec and Dihydro-beta-erythroidine (DHbetaE), and also by the DA D1 receptor antagonist, SCH-23390. These results are consistent with previously established pharmacology of nAChR regulation of hippocampal ACh release. Repeated administration of SIB-1508Y did not result in an enhanced striatal DA release or hippocampal ACh release. In summary, the abilities of SIB-1508Y to release multiple neurotransmitters in distinct brain regions may contribute to its behavioral profile.

A general method for the synthesis of bis-substituted 1,2,4-oxadiazoles from readily available arylnitriles and activated carbonyls in a single continuous microreactor sequence is described. The synthesis incorporates three sequential microreactors to produce 1,2,4-oxadiazoles in approximately 30 min in quantities (40-80 mg) sufficient for full characterization and rapid library supply.

West Nile virus (WNV), a member of the Flavividae family, is a mosquito-borne, emerging pathogen. In addition to WNV, the family includes dengue, yellow fever, and Japanese encephalitis viruses, which affect millions of individuals worldwide. Because countermeasures are currently unavailable, flaviviral therapy is urgently required. The flaviviral two-component nonstructural NS2B-NS3 proteinase (protease [pro]) is essential for viral life cycle and, consequently, is a promising drug target. We report here the results of the miniaturization of an NS2B-NS3pro activity assay, followed by high-throughput screening of the National Institutes of Health's 65,000 compound library and identification of novel, uncompetitive inhibitors of WNV NS2B-NS3pro that appear to interfere with the productive interactions of the NS2B cofactor with the NS3pro domain. We anticipate that following structure optimization, the identified probes could form the foundation for the design of novel and specific therapeutics for WNV infection. We also provide the structural basis for additional species-selective allosteric inhibitors of flaviviruses.

Purpose: Sensitize melanomas to apoptosis and inhibit their growth and metastatic potential by compounds that mimic the activities of activating transcription factor 2 (ATF2)-driven peptides., Experimental Design: Small-molecule chemical library consisting of 3,280 compounds was screened to identify compounds that elicit properties identified for ATF2 peptide, including (a) sensitization of melanoma cells to apoptosis, (b) inhibition of ATF2 transcriptional activity, (c) activation of c-Jun NH(2)-terminal kinase (JNK) and c-Jun transcriptional activity, and (d) inhibition of melanoma growth and metastasis in mouse models., Results: Two compounds, celastrol (CSL) and acetyl isogambogic acid, could, within a low micromolar range, efficiently elicit cell death in melanoma cells. Both compounds efficiently inhibit ATF2 transcriptional activities, activate JNK, and increase c-Jun transcriptional activities. Similar to the ATF2 peptide, both compounds require JNK activity for their ability to inhibit melanoma cell viability. Derivatives of CSL were identified as potent inducers of cell death in mouse and human melanomas. CSL and a derivative (CA19) could also efficiently inhibit growth of human and mouse melanoma tumors and reduce the number of lung metastases in syngeneic and xenograft mouse models., Conclusions: These studies show for the first time the effect of CSL and acetyl isogambogic acid on melanoma. These compounds elicit activities that resemble the well-characterized ATF2 peptide and may therefore offer new approaches for the treatment of this tumor type.

Structure-activity relationship studies on the phenyl ring of 3-(5-pyridin-2-yl-2H-tetrazol-2-yl)benzonitrile 2 led to the discovery that small, non-hydrogen bond donor substituents at the 3-position led to a substantial increase in in vitro potency. In particular, 3-fluoro-5-(5-pyridin-2-yl-2H-tetrazol-2-yl)benzonitrile (7) is a highly potent and selective mGlu5 receptor antagonist with good rat pharmacokinetics, brain penetration, and in vivo receptor occupancy.

Structure-activity relationship studies leading to the discovery of novel mGlu5 receptor antagonists are described. These compounds show high in vitro potency, have good in vivo receptor occupancy, and a reasonable intravenous pharmacokinetic profile.

Three metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGluR5) PET tracers have been labeled with either carbon-11 or fluorine-18 and their in vitro and in vivo behavior in rhesus monkey has been characterized. Each of these tracers share the common features of high affinity for mGluR5 (0.08-0.23 nM vs. rat mGluR5) and moderate lipophilicity (log P 2.8-3.4). Compound 1b was synthesized using a Suzuki or Stille coupling reaction with [11C]MeI. Compounds 2b and 3b were synthesized by a SNAr reaction using a 3-chlorobenzonitrile precursor. Autoradiographic studies in rhesus monkey brain slices using 2b and 3b showed specific binding in cortex, caudate, putamen, amygdala, hippocampus, most thalamic nuclei, and lower binding in the cerebellum. PET imaging studies in monkey showed that all three tracers readily enter the brain and provide an mGluR5-specific signal in all gray matter regions, including the cerebellum. The specific signal observed in the cerebellum was confirmed by the autoradiographic studies and saturation binding experiments that showed tracer binding in the cerebellum of rhesus monkeys. In vitro metabolism studies using the unlabeled compounds showed that 1a, 2a, and 3a are metabolized slower by human liver microsomes than by monkey liver microsomes. In vivo metabolism studies showed 3b to be long-lived in rhesus plasma with only one other more polar metabolite observed., ((c) 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

The metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype mGlu5 modulates central reward pathways. Many transmitter systems within reward pathways affect feeding. We examined the potential role of mGlu5 in body weight regulation using genetic and pharmacological approaches. Adult mice lacking mGlu5, mGluR5-/-, weighed significantly less than littermate controls (mGluR5+/+, despite no difference in ad libitum food intake. After overnight food deprivation, mGluR5-/- mice ate significantly less than their mGluR5+/+ controls when refeeding. When on a high fat diet, mGluR5-/- mice weighed less and had decreased plasma insulin and leptin concentrations. The selective mGlu5 antagonist MTEP [3-[(2-methyl-1,3-thiazol-4-yl)-ethynyl]-pyridine; 15 mg/kg s.c.] reduced refeeding after overnight food deprivation in mGluR5+/+, but not mGluR5-/- mice, demonstrating that feeding suppression is mediated via a mGlu5 mechanism. MTEP (1-10 mg/kg) decreased night-time food intake in rats in a dose-related manner. At 10 mg/kg, MTEP injected at 8.5, 4.5, or 0.5 h before refeeding reduced overnight food intake by approximately approximately 30%. Diet-induced obese (DIO) and age-matched lean rats were treated for 12 days with MTEP (3 or 10 mg/kg/day s.c.), dexfenfluramine (3 mg/kg/day s.c.), or vehicle. Daily and cumulative food intakes were reduced in DIO rats by MTEP and dexfenfluramine. Weight gain was prevented with MTEP (3 mg/kg), and weight and adiposity loss was seen with MTEP (10 mg/kg) and dexfenfluramine. Caloric efficiency was decreased, suggesting increased energy expenditure. In lean rats, similar, although smaller, effects were observed. In conclusion, using genetic and pharmacological approaches, we have shown that mGlu5 modulates food intake and energy balance in rodents.