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In a number of European countries there is a clear trend towards increased multiple jobholding. As things stand, however, little is known about the structure and the potential consequences of this increase, notably in terms of quality of work and social protection. This special issue focuses on contemporary forms of multiple jobholding in Europe. Have the structure, nature and dynamics of multiple jobholding changed over time? What are the roles of labour market flexibility, technological change and work fragmentation in the development of multiple jobholding? And do multiple jobholders benefit from similar and adequate employment terms, conditions and protections compared with single jobholders, or are they worse off as a consequence of their (fragmented) employment situation? What implications do these findings have for unions, policy-makers and the regulation of work? The collection of articles in this special issue adds to the literature on emerging forms of employment in the digital age and challenges for social protection, also in light of the COVID-19 pandemic. This introduction initiates a discussion of central debates on multiple jobholding and presents a synopsis of the articles in this issue.

This study documents the results of a research project examining where, when and how multiple jobholding has changed in Europe over the past decades. The research was conducted by a research team from the University of Amsterdam (UvA AIAS-HSI) and addresses changes in individual and occupational features as well as the quality of multiple jobholders' work. The study describes multiple jobholding against the backdrop of an increasingly flexible and fragmented world of work, and, thus, relates the debate on multiple jobholders' motives, mobility and job out-comes to labour market flexibilisation and fragmentation. The project is part of the European research network "Hybridisation of Work", which is organized by the Economic and Social Science institute (WSI) of the Hans-Böckler-Foundation.

This chapter discusses the findings from previous chapters, points to future policy challenges and presents suggestions for future research. The picture of self-employment as precarious work in Europe is diverse and far from uniform, but with respect to the different dimensions one may conclude – though with a degree of caution – that: (1) for many self-employed current income is not an immediate or pressing problem, although for some this is mostly because their income from self-employment is not the only source of income. Still, many self-employed lack the opportunity to put something aside for a rainy day; (2) in various countries, social benefits and regulatory protection are relatively poor, though very much depending on specific national conditions; and (3) uncertainty for self-employed is typically high, but also often regarded part of the job. Directions for future research include research on changes in employment biographies over time, employment insecurity and social protection.

This paper examines how the economic climate and policy changes at national level have been affecting organisational practices, aimed at the extension of working lives of older workers, over the last decade. We analyse case studies conducted among Dutch organisations. Our findings show that personnel policies are typically short-term oriented and vary in their existence and content congruous to the economic climate. Policy changes in retirement arrangements, and the debate about raising the official retirement age, have made both employees and employers realise that the extension of working lives has become an unavoidable fact, although both parties still seem intrinsically opposed to it. Changes to safety regulations and the increase in costs for employers if employees drop out of work due to ill health have led to an increasing focus on health-related measures in professions with intense physical work over the last decade. We conclude that, while national level policy changes in areas like health and safety do percolate down and begin to affect organisational practice, it is at the organisational level that they still need to be worked through.

Diese WSI-Studie zeigt Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede in der Entwicklung und der Struktur der Solo-Selbstständigkeit im Vergleich zwischen den Niederlanden und Deutschland auf. Die Befunde zeigen, dass das Wachstum dieser Erwerbskategorie in den Niederlanden besonders stark ausfiel - hier war im letzten Jahrzehnt eine der höchsten Zuwachsraten Europas zu verzeichnen. In Deutschland verlief der Anstieg der Solo-Selbstständigkeit wesentlich moderater. In beiden Ländern umfasst der Zuwachs besonders Ältere und gut Qualifizierte sowie verschiedene Dienstleistungsbereiche und die Bauwirtschaft. In Deutschland sind "Gründungen aus der Not" häufiger und der Anteil unfreiwilliger und prekärer Selbstständigkeit höher als in den Niederlanden.

This WSI Study gives an overview of the position of solo self-employed in Germany and the Netherlands by examining - in their institutional context - labour market characteristics and social security provisions. The Study has been prepared within the project 'Self-employed without personnel: between freedom and insecurity', funded by the Hans-Böckler-Stiftung. It draws on results from desk research, analyses of existing statistical data, survey research and interviews with self-employed without personnel. The research was conducted by a research team from Utrecht University School of Economics (U.S.E.) in collaboration with the Institute of Economic and Social Research (WSI).