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Animal products, that is, meat, milk, and eggs, are important components in global diets, but livestock dominate agricultural land use by area and are a major source of greenhouse gases. Cultural and personal associations with animal product consumption create barriers to moderating consumption and hence reducing environmental impacts. This chapter reviews alternatives to conventional animal products, including cultured and imitation meats and insects (i.e., entomophagy), and explores the potential change in global agricultural land requirements associated with each alternative. The chapter considers and compares the agricultural land area given shifts between conventional animal product consumption or to one of these alternative products. The analysis uses stylized transformative consumption scenarios where half of current conventional animal products are substituted to provide at least equal protein and calories.

Animal products, i.e. meat, milk and eggs, provide an important component in global diets, but livestock dominate agricultural land use by area and are a major source of greenhouse gases. Cultural and personal associations with animal product consumption create barriers to moderating consumption, and hence reduced environmental impacts. Here we review alternatives to conventional animal products, including cultured meat, imitation meat and insects (i.e. entomophagy), and explore the potential change in global agricultural land requirements associated with each alternative. Stylised transformative consumption scenarios where half of current conventional animal products are substituted to provide at least equal protein and calories are considered. The analysis also considers and compares the agricultural land area given shifts between conventional animal product consumption. The results suggest that imitation meat and insects have the highest land use efficiency, but the land use requirements are only slightly greater for eggs and poultry meat. The efficiency of insects and their ability to convert agricultural by-products and food waste into food, suggests further research into insect production is warranted. Cultured meat does not appear to offer substantial benefits over poultry meat or eggs, with similar conversion efficiency, but higher direct energy requirements. Comparison with the land use savings from reduced consumer waste, including over-consumption, suggests greater benefits could be achieved from alternative dietary transformations considered. We conclude that although a diet with lower rates of animal product consumption is likely to create the greatest reduction in agricultural land, a mix of smaller changes in consumer behaviour, such as replacing beef with chicken, reducing food waste and potentially introducing insects more commonly into diets, would also achieve land savings and a more sustainable food system.

Purpose To determine whether stereopsis of infants treated for monocular cataracts varies with the type of optical correction used. Design Randomized prospective clinical trial. Methods The Infant Aphakia Treatment Study randomized 114 patients with unilateral cataracts at age 1–7 months to either primary intraocular lens (IOL) or contact lens correction. At 4.5 years of age a masked examiner assessed stereopsis on these patients using 3 different tests: (1) Frisby; (2) Randot Preschool; and (3) Titmus Fly. Results Twenty-eight patients (25%) had a positive response to at least 1 of the stereopsis tests. There was no statistically significant difference in stereopsis between the 2 treatment groups: Frisby (contact lens, 6 [11%]; IOL, 7 [13%]; P = .99), Randot (contact lens, 3 [6%]; IOL, 1 [2%]; P = .62), or Titmus (contact lens, 8 [15%]; IOL, 13 [23%]; P = .34). The median age at surgery for patients with stereopsis was younger than for those without stereopsis (1.2 vs 2.4 months; P = .002). The median visual acuity for patients with stereopsis was better than for those without stereopsis (20/40 vs 20/252; P = .0003). Conclusion The type of optical correction did not influence stereopsis outcomes. However, 2 other factors did: age at surgery and visual acuity in the treated eye at age 4.5 years. Early surgery for unilateral congenital cataract and the presence of visual acuity better than or equal to 20/40 appear to be more important than the type of initial optical correction used for the development of stereopsis.

Objective To compare the use of contact lenses and intraocular lenses (IOLs) for the optical correction of unilateral aphakia during infancy. Methods In a randomized, multicenter (12 sites) clinical trial, 114 infants with unilateral congenital cataracts were assigned to undergo cataract surgery with or without IOL implantation. Children randomized to IOL treatment had their residual refractive error corrected with spectacles. Children randomized to no IOL treatment had their aphakia treated with a contact lens. Main outcome measures Grating acuity at 12 months of age and HOTV visual acuity at 4 1/2 years of age. Application to clinical practice This study should determine whether either treatment for an infant with a visually significant unilateral congenital cataract results in a better visual outcome. Results Enrollment began December 23, 2004, and was completed January 16, 2009. The median age at the time of cataract surgery was 1.8 months. Fifty patients were 4 to 6 weeks of age at the time of enrollment; 32, 7 weeks to 3 months of age; and the remaining 32, more than 3 to less than 7 months of age. Fifty-seven children were randomized to each treatment group. Eyes with cataracts had shorter axial lengths and steeper corneas on average than the fellow eyes. Conclusions The optimal optical treatment of aphakia in infants is unknown. However, the Infant Aphakia Treatment Study was designed to provide empirical evidence of whether optical treatment with an IOL or a contact lens after unilateral cataract surgery during infancy is associated with a better visual outcome.

Purpose To compare rates and severity of complications between infants undergoing cataract surgery with and without intraocular lens (IOL) implantation. Design Prospective randomized clinical trial. Methods A total of 114 infants were enrolled in the Infant Aphakia Treatment Study, a randomized, multi-center (12) clinical trial comparing the treatment of unilateral aphakia in patients under 7 months of age with a primary IOL implant or contact lens. The rate, character, and severity of intraoperative complications, adverse events, and additional intraocular surgeries during the first 5 postoperative years in the 2 groups were examined. Results There were more patients with intraoperative complications (28% vs 11%, P = .031), adverse events (81% vs 56%, P = .008), and more additional intraocular surgeries (72% vs 16%, P Conclusion The increased rate of complications, adverse events, and additional intraocular surgeries associated with IOL implantation in infants

There are substantial challenges in providing safe, affordable, and nutritious food for a healthy and active human population globally. At present, instances of undernourishment and micronutrient deficiencies are widespread and occur in the same communities as obesity – forming what has been termed as the ‘triple burden of malnourishment’. This triple burden of malnourishment affects the health of individuals, increases demand for medical services, and can reduce the productive capacity of a society. Concurrently, ecological and atmospheric conditions are approaching critical tipping points that will have a bearing on the ecosystems services that are required to produce our food. By 2064, the human population is predicted to reach 9.7 billion people – 2 billion more than 20201 . With this growth in population it will be increasingly challenging to address the triple burden of malnourishment and maintain or improve ecosystem services. This introduction serves as a brief overview of how remote sensing has been employed to inform decisions that will address these challenges.