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Phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4) is highly expressed in keratinocytes and immune cells and promotes pro-inflammatory responses upon activation. The activity of PDE4 has been attributed to various inflammatory conditions, leading to the development and approval of PDE4 inhibitors as host-directed therapeutics in humans. For example, the topical PDE4 inhibitor, crisaborole, is approved for the treatment of mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis and has shown efficacy in patients with psoriasis. However, the role of crisaborole in regulating the immunopathogenesis of inflammatory skin diseases and infection is not entirely known. Therefore, we evaluated the effects of crisaborole in multiple mouse models, including psoriasis-like dermatitis, AD-like skin inflammation with and without filaggrin mutations, and S. aureus skin infection. We discovered that crisaborole dampens myeloid cells and itch in the skin during psoriasis-like dermatitis. Furthermore, crisaborole was effective in reducing skin inflammation in the context of filaggrin deficiency. Importantly, crisaborole reduced S. aureus skin colonization during AD-like skin inflammation. However, crisaborole was not efficacious in treating S. aureus skin infections, even as adjunctive therapy to antibiotics. Taken together, we found that crisaborole reduced itch during psoriasis-like dermatitis and decreased S. aureus skin colonization upon AD-like skin inflammation, which act as additional mechanisms by which crisaborole dampens the immunopathogenesis in mouse models of inflammatory skin diseases. Further examination is warranted to translate these preclinical findings to human disease.

Fibrosis is a major health burden across diseases and organs. To remedy this, we study wound‐induced hair follicle neogenesis (WIHN) as a model of non‐fibrotic healing that recapitulates embryogenesis for de novo hair follicle morphogenesis after wounding. We previously demonstrated that TLR3 promotes WIHN through binding wound‐associated dsRNA, the source of which is still unclear. Here, we find that multiple distinct contexts of high WIHN all show a strong neutrophil signature. Given the correlation between neutrophil infiltration and endogenous dsRNA release, we hypothesized that neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) likely release nuclear spliceosomal U1 dsRNA and modulate WIHN. However, rather than enhance regeneration, we find mature neutrophils inhibit WIHN such that mice with mature neutrophil depletion exhibit higher WIHN. Similarly, Pad4 null mice, which are defective in NET production, show augmented WIHN. Finally, using single‐cell RNA sequencing, we identify a dramatic increase in mature and activated neutrophils in the wound beds of low regenerating Tlr3−/− mice. Taken together, these results demonstrate that although mature neutrophils are stimulated by a common pro‐regenerative cue, their presence and NETs hinder regeneration.

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are a key antimicrobial feature of cellular innate immunity mediated by polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs), the primary human leukocyte population. NETs trap and kill microbes but have also been linked to inflammation, e.g. atherosclerosis, arthritis or psoriasis by unknown mechanisms. We here characterize naRNA (NET-associated RNA), as a new canonical, abundant, and unexplored inflammatory NET component. naRNA, upon release by NET formation, drove further NET formation in naïve PMN, and induced macrophage and keratinocyte activation via TLR8 in humans and Tlr13 in mice, in vitro and in vivo. Importantly, in vivo naRNA strongly drove skin inflammation, whereas genetic ablation of RNA sensing drastically ameliorated psoriatic skin inflammation. Rather than accidentally assembling with LL37 on the NET, naRNA was intracellularly pre-associated in resting neutrophils as a ‘composite DAMP’, thus highlighting NET formation as a DAMP release process. This re-defines sterile NETs as an intentionally inflammatory agent, signaling and amplifying neutrophil activation. Moreover, in the many conditions previously linked to NETs and extracellular RNA, TLR-mediated naRNA sensing emerges as both potential cause and new intervention target.Graphical abstractCreated with biorender.com

Healthy skin maintains a diverse microbiome and a potent immune system to fight off infections. Here, we discovered that the epithelial-cell-derived antimicrobial peptides defensins activated orphan G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) Mrgpra2a/b on neutrophils. This signaling axis was required for effective neutrophil-mediated skin immunity and microbiome homeostasis. We generated mutant mouse lines lacking the entire Defensin (Def) gene cluster in keratinocytes or Mrgpra2a/b. Def and Mrgpra2 mutant animals both exhibited skin dysbiosis, with reduced microbial diversity and expansion of Staphylococcus species. Defensins and Mrgpra2 were critical for combating S. aureus infections and the formation of neutrophil abscesses, a hallmark of antibacterial immunity. Activation of Mrgpra2 by defensin triggered neutrophil release of IL-1β and CXCL2 which are vital for proper amplification and propagation of the antibacterial immune response. This study demonstrated the importance of epithelial-neutrophil signaling via the defensin-Mrgpra2 axis in maintaining healthy skin ecology and promoting antibacterial host defense.

IgE induced by type 2 immune responses in atopic dermatitis is implicated in the progression of atopic dermatitis to other allergic diseases, including food allergies, allergic rhinitis, and asthma. However, the keratinocyte-derived signals that promote IgE and ensuing allergic diseases remain unclear. Herein, in a mouse model of atopic dermatitis-like skin inflammation induced by epicutaneous Staphylococcus aureus exposure, keratinocyte release of IL‑36α along with IL-4 triggered B cell IgE class-switching, plasma cell differentiation, and increased serum IgE levels-all of which were abrogated in IL-36R-deficient mice or anti-IL‑36R-blocking antibody-treated mice. Moreover, skin allergen sensitization during S. aureus epicutaneous exposure-induced IL-36 responses was required for the development of allergen-specific lung inflammation. In translating these findings, elevated IL‑36 cytokines in human atopic dermatitis skin and in IL‑36 receptor antagonist-deficiency patients coincided with increased serum IgE levels. Collectively, keratinocyte-initiated IL‑36 responses represent a key mechanism and potential therapeutic target against allergic diseases.

Healthy skin maintains a diverse microbiome and a potent immune system to fight off infections. Here, we discovered that epithelial cell-derived antimicrobial peptides defensins activate orphan GPCRs Mrgpra2a/b on neutrophils. This signaling axis is required for effective neutrophil-mediated skin immunity and microbiome homeostasis. We generated mutant mouse lines lacking the entire Defensin (Def) gene cluster or Mrgpra2a/b. Def and Mrgpra2 mutant animals both exhibited skin dysbiosis, with reduced microbial diversity and expansion of Staphylococcus species. Furthermore, we found that defensins and Mrgpra2 are critical for combatting S. aureus infections and the formation of neutrophil abscesses, a hallmark of antibacterial immunity. Activation of Mrgpra2 by defensin triggers neutrophils to release the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β, which is vital for proper amplification and propagation of the antibacterial immune response. This study demonstrates the importance of epithelial-neutrophil signaling via the defensin-Mrgpra2 axis in maintaining healthy skin ecology and promoting antibacterial host defense.

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) is important for psoriasis pathogenesis because STAT3 signaling downstream of IL-6, IL-21, IL-22, and IL-23 contributes to T helper type 17 cell development and because transgenic mice with keratinocyte (KC) STAT3 expression (K14-Stat3C mice) develop psoriasis-like dermatitis. In this study, the relative contribution of STAT3 signaling in KCs versus in T cells was evaluated in the imiquimod model of psoriasis-like dermatitis. Mice with STAT3-inducible deletion in KCs (K5-Stat3-/- mice) had decreased psoriasis-like dermatitis and epidermal STAT3 phosphorylation compared with wild-type mice, whereas mice with constitutive deletion of STAT3 in all T cells were similar to wild-type mice. Interestingly, mice with KC-inducible deletion of IL-6Rα had similar findings to those of K5-Stat3-/- mice, identifying IL-6/IL-6R as a predominant upstream signal for KC STAT3-induced psoriasis-like dermatitis. Moreover, psoriasis-like dermatitis inversely associated with type 1 immune gene products, especially CXCL10, whereas CXCL10 limited psoriasis-like dermatitis, suggesting that KC STAT3 signaling promoted psoriasis-like dermatitis by restricting downstream CXCL10 expression. Finally, treatment of mice with the pan-Jak inhibitor, tofacitinib, reduced psoriasis-like dermatitis and epidermal STAT3 phosphorylation. Taken together, STAT3 signaling in KCs rather than in T cells was a more important determinant for psoriasis-like dermatitis in a mechanism that involved upstream KC IL-6R signaling and downstream inhibition of type 1 immunity‒associated CXCL10 responses.

Staphylococcus aureus causes most skin infections in humans, and the emergence of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) strains is a serious public health threat. There is an urgent clinical need for nonantibiotic immunotherapies to treat MRSA infections and prevent the spread of antibiotic resistance. Here, we investigated the pan-caspase inhibitor quinoline-valine-aspartic acid-difluorophenoxymethyl ketone (Q-VD-OPH) for efficacy against MRSA skin infection in mice. A single systemic dose of Q-VD-OPH decreased skin lesion sizes and reduced bacterial burden compared with vehicle-treated or untreated mice. Although Q-VD-OPH inhibited inflammasome-dependent apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing caspase activation and recruitment domain (ASC) speck formation and caspase-1-mediated interleukin-1β (IL-1β) production, Q-VD-OPH maintained efficacy in mice deficient in IL-1β, ASC, caspase-1, caspase-11, or gasdermin D. Thus, Q-VD-OPH efficacy was independent of inflammasome-mediated pyroptosis. Rather, Q-VD-OPH reduced apoptosis of monocytes and neutrophils. Moreover, Q-VD-OPH enhanced necroptosis of macrophages with concomitant increases in serum TNF and TNF-producing neutrophils, monocytes/macrophages, and neutrophils in the infected skin. Consistent with this, Q-VD-OPH lacked efficacy in mice deficient in TNF (with associated reduced neutrophil influx and necroptosis), in mice deficient in TNF/IL-1R and anti-TNF antibody-treated WT mice. In vitro studies revealed that combined caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9 inhibition reduced apoptosis, and combined caspase-1, caspase-8, and caspase-11 inhibition increased TNF, suggesting a mechanism for Q-VD-OPH efficacy in vivo. Last, Q-VD-OPH also had a therapeutic effect against Streptococcus pyogenes and Pseudomonas aeruginosa skin infections in mice. Collectively, pan-caspase inhibition represents a potential host-directed immunotherapy against MRSA and other bacterial skin infections.

Fibrosis is a major health burden across diseases and organs. To remedy this, we study wound induced hair follicle regeneration (WIHN) as a model of non-fibrotic healing that recapitulates embryogenesis for de novo hair follicle morphogenesis after wounding. We have previously demonstrated that TLR3 promotes WIHN through binding dsRNA, but the source of which is still unclear. Here, we demonstrate that multiple distinct contexts of high WIHN all show a strong neutrophil signature, and given the likelihood of nuclear dsRNA release during the production of neutrophil extracellular trap (NETs), we hypothesized that mature neutrophils and NETs might promote WIHN. Consistent with this, in addition to the presence of mature neutrophils shortly after wounding, neutrophils remain within the wound after the barrier is reestablished, where they produce extracellular traps (NETs) that likely release spliceosomal U1 dsRNA. Contrary to our hypothesis, genetic models of neutrophil depletion show enhanced WIHN. Pad4 null mice that are defective in NET production also augment WIHN. Finally, using single-cell RNA sequencing, we identified a dramatic increase in mature neutrophils in the wound beds of low regenerating Tlr3-/- mice. Taken together, these results demonstrate that although mature neutrophils are stimulated by a common pro-regenerative cue, their presence and NETs hinder WIHN.

Microbial ingestion by a macrophage results in the formation of an acidic phagolysosome but the host cell has no information on the pH susceptibility of the ingested organism. This poses a problem for the macrophage and raises the fundamental question of how the phagocytic cell optimizes the acidification process to prevail. We analyzed the dynamical distribution of phagolysosomal pH in murine and human macrophages that had ingested live or dead Cryptococcus neoformans cells, or inert beads. Phagolysosomal acidification produced a range of pH values that approximated normal distributions, but these differed from normality depending on ingested particle type. Analysis of the increments of pH reduction revealed no forbidden ordinal patterns, implying that the phagosomal acidification process was a stochastic dynamical system. Using simulation modeling, we determined that by stochastically acidifying a phagolysosome to a pH within the observed distribution, macrophages sacrificed a small amount of overall fitness to gain the benefit of reduced variation in fitness. Hence, chance in the final phagosomal pH introduces unpredictability to the outcome of the macrophage-microbe, which implies a bet-hedging strategy that benefits the macrophage. While bet hedging is common in biological systems at the organism level, our results show its use at the organelle and cellular level.

Bacterial skin infections are a major societal health burden and are increasingly difficult to treat owing to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains such as community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Understanding the immunologic mechanisms that provide durable protection against skin infections has the potential to guide the development of immunotherapies and vaccines to engage the host immune response to combat these antibiotic-resistant strains. To this end, mouse skin infection models allow researchers to examine host immunity by investigating the timing, inoculum, route of infection and the causative bacterial species in different wild-type mouse backgrounds as well as in knockout, transgenic, and other types of genetically engineered mouse strains. To recapitulate the various types of human skin infections, many different mouse models have been developed. For example, four models frequently used in dermatological research are based on the route of infection, including (i) subcutaneous infection models, (ii) intradermal infection models, (iii) wound infection models, and (iv) epicutaneous infection models. In this article, we will describe these skin infection models in detail along with their advantages and limitations. In addition, we will discuss how humanized mouse models such as the human skin xenograft on immunocompromised mice might be used in bacterial skin infection research.

Microbial ingestion by a macrophage results in the formation of an acidic phagolysosome but the host cell has no information on the pH susceptibility of the ingested organism. This poses a problem for the macrophage and raises the fundamental question of how the phagocytic cell optimizes the acidification process to prevail. We analyzed the dynamical distribution of phagolysosomal pH in murine and human macrophages that had ingested live or dead Cryptococcus neoformans cells, or inert beads. Phagolysosomal acidification produced a range of pH values that approximated normal distributions, but these differed from normality depending on ingested particle type. Analysis of the increments of pH reduction revealed no forbidden ordinal patterns, implying that phagosomal acidification process was a stochastic dynamical system. Using simulation modeling, we determined that by stochastically acidifying a phagolysosome to a pH within the observed distribution, macrophages sacrificed a small amount of overall fitness to gain the benefit of reduced variation in fitness. Hence, chance in the final phagosomal pH introduces unpredictability to the outcome of the macrophage-microbe, which implies a bet-hedging strategy that benefits the macrophage. While bet hedging is common in biological systems at the organism level, our results show its use at the organelle and cellular level.

Immunoglobulin G3 (IgG3) has an uncertain role in the response to infection with and vaccination against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Here we describe a regulatory role for IgG3 in dampening the immune system–activating effects of chronic HIV viremia on B cells. Secreted IgG3 was bound to IgM-expressing B cells in vivo in HIV-infected chronically viremic individuals but not in early-viremic or aviremic individuals. Tissue-like memory (TLM) B cells, a population expanded by persistent HIV viremia, bound large amounts of IgG3. IgG3 induced clustering of B cell antigen receptors (BCRs) on the IgM+ B cells, which was mediated by direct interactions between soluble IgG3 and membrane IgM of the BCR (IgM-BCR). The inhibitory IgG receptor CD32b (FcγRIIb), complement component C1q and inflammatory biomarker CRP contributed to the binding of secreted IgG3 onto IgM-expressing B cells of HIV-infected individuals. Notably, IgG3-bound TLM B cells were refractory to IgM-BCR stimulation, thus demonstrating that IgG3 can regulate B cells during chronic activation of the immune system. Circulating IgG3 increases in chronic HIV infection. Moir and colleagues describe a negative regulatory role of secreted IgG3 in response to chronic HIV infection through its action on nonconventional CD27– memory B cells.

The multipotency and anti-inflammatory effects of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) make them attractive for cell therapy in regenerative medicine. A large number of MSCs is required for efficient therapy owing to the low homing efficiency of MSCs to target sites. Furthermore, owing to limitations in obtaining sufficient amounts of MSCs, in vitro expansion of MSCs that preserves their differentiation and proliferative potential is essential. The animal factor included in culture media also limits clinical application. In this study, adipose-derived MSCs showed a significantly higher proliferation rate in STK2, a chemically-defined medium, than in DMEM/FBS. The expression of MSC surface markers was increased in the culture using STK2 compared to that using DMEM/FBS. Tri-lineage differentiation analyses showed that MSCs cultured in STK2 were superior to those cultured in DMEM/FBS. In addition, MSCs cultured in STK2 showed a reduced senescence rate, small and homogenous cell size, and were more genetically stable compared to those cultured in DMEM/FBS. Furthermore, secretome analysis showed that the expression of factors related to proliferation/migration, anti-inflammation, and differentiation were increased in STK2 culture medium compared to DMEM/FBS. Taken together, these results suggest that culture using STK2 medium offers many advantages through which it is possible to obtain safer, superior, and larger numbers of MSCs.

A newly discovered negative glucocorticoid response element (nGRE) mediates DNA-dependent transrepression by the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) across the genome and plays a major role in immunosuppressive therapy. The nGRE differs dramatically from activating response elements and the mechanism driving GR binding and transrepression is unknown. To unravel the mechanism of nGRE-mediated transrepression by the glucocorticoid receptor, we characterize the interaction between GR and a nGRE in the thymic stromal lymphopoetin (TSLP) promoter. We show using structural and mechanistic approaches that nGRE binding represents a new mode of sequence recognition by human GR and that nGREs prevent receptor dimerization through a unique GR-binding orientation and strong negative cooperativity, ensuring the presence of monomeric GR at repressive elements.

The steroid hormone receptors regulate important physiological functions such as reproduction, metabolism, immunity, and electrolyte balance. Mutations within steroid receptors result in endocrine disorders and can often drive cancer formation and progression. Despite the conserved three-dimensional structure shared among members of the steroid receptor family and their overlapping DNA binding preference, activation of individual steroid receptors drive unique effects on gene expression. Here, we present the first structure of the human mineralocorticoid receptor DNA binding domain, in complex with a canonical DNA response element. The overall structure is similar to the glucocorticoid receptor DNA binding domain, but small changes in the mode of DNA binding and lever arm conformation may begin to explain the differential effects on gene regulation by the mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptors. In addition, we explore the structural effects of mineralocorticoid receptor DNA binding domain mutations found in type I pseudohypoaldosteronism and multiple types of cancer.