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Mutant epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is a major driver of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Marketed first generation inhibitors, such as erlotinib, effect a transient beneficial response in EGFR mutant NSCLC patients before resistance mechanisms render these inhibitors ineffective. Secondary oncogenic EGFR mutations account for approximately 50% of relapses, the most common being the gatekeeper T790M substitution that renders existing therapies ineffective. The discovery of PF-06459988 (1), an irreversible pyrrolopyrimidine inhibitor of EGFR T790M mutants, was recently disclosed.1 Herein, we describe our continued efforts to achieve potency across EGFR oncogenic mutations and improved kinome selectivity, resulting in the discovery of clinical candidate PF-06747775 (21), which provides potent EGFR activity against the four common mutants (exon 19 deletion (Del), L858R, and double mutants T790M/L858R and T790M/Del), selectivity over wild-type EGFR, and desirable ADME properties. Compound 21 is ...

First generation EGFR TKIs (gefitinib, erlotinib) provide significant clinical benefit for NSCLC cancer patients with oncogenic EGFR mutations. Ultimately, these patients’ disease progresses, often driven by a second-site mutation in the EGFR kinase domain (T790M). Another liability of the first generation drugs is severe adverse events driven by inhibition of WT EGFR. As such, our goal was to develop a highly potent irreversible inhibitor with the largest selectivity ratio between the drug-resistant double mutants (L858R/T790M, Del/T790M) and WT EGFR. A unique approach to develop covalent inhibitors, optimization of reversible binding affinity, served as a cornerstone of this effort. PF-06459988 was discovered as a novel, third generation irreversible inhibitor, which demonstrates (i) high potency and specificity to the T790M-containing double mutant EGFRs, (ii) minimal intrinsic chemical reactivity of the electrophilic warhead, (iii) greatly reduced proteome reactivity relative to earlier irreversible E...

[Image: see text] Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS) oncogenic mutations are leading causes for lung cancer. Extensive drug discovery efforts targeting EGFR have led to the discovery and FDA approval of both reversible and covalent inhibitors. Second and third generation covalent inhibitors for EGFR have also been described, with the latter targeting specific emerging mutations. After decades of extensive effort, KRAS is widely regarded as an intractable therapeutic target; however, recent publications suggest covalent inhibition is a promising strategy to deliver inhibitors of the KRAS(G12C) mutation.

PI3K, AKT and mTOR, key kinases from a frequently dysregulated PI3K signaling pathway, have been extensively pursued to treat a variety of cancers in oncology. Clinical trials of PF-04691502, a highly potent and selective ATP competitive kinase inhibitor of class 1 PI3Ks and mTOR, from 4-methylpyridopyrimidinone series, led to the discovery of a metabolite with a terminal carboxylic acid, PF-06465603. This paper discusses structure-based drug design, SAR and antitumor activity of the MPP derivatives with a terminal alcohol, a carboxylic acid or a carboxyl amide.

N-(Pyridin-2-yl) arylsulfonamides 1 and 2 (PF-915275) were identified as potent inhibitors of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1. A screen for bioactivation revealed that these compounds formed glutathione conjugates. This communication presents the results of a risk benefit analysis carried out to progress 2 (PF-915275) to a clinical study and the strategies used to eliminate reactive metabolites in this series of inhibitors. Based on the proposed mechanism of bioactivation and structure-activity relationships, design efforts led to N-(pyridin-2-yl) arylsulfonamides such as 18 and 20 that maintained potent 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 activity, showed exquisite pharmacokinetic profiles, and were negative in the reactive metabolite assay.

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) plays a critical role in the regulation of cell growth, proliferation, and metabolism by integrating growth factor stimulation and energy/nutrient input through a complex signaling network. The mTOR kinase is a part of two structurally and functionally distinct multiple protein complexes, mTORC1 and mTORC2. The mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) is rapamycin-sensitive and mediates temporal control of cell growth by regulating several cellular processes, such as translation, transcription, and nutrient transport while the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 2 (mTORC2) is insensitive to rapamycin and is involved in spatial control of cell growth via cytoskeleton regulation. Here we discuss the mechanism of mTOR regulation in tumor malignancy through a variety of signaling pathways and the potential of mTOR inhibitors for the treatment of cancer.

First generation epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (gefitinib and erlotinib) demonstrate excellent clinical efficacy for NSCLC patients carrying EGFR oncogenic mutations (L858R, del exon 19 deletions between amino acids 746 and 750). Invariable, drug resistance occurs with around 60% of it driven by the EGFR-T790M gatekeeper mutation. To counter the T790M-dependent resistance, third generation covalent EGFR inhibitors have been developed with high potency toward T790M containing mutants and selectivity over WT EGFR. This review provides an overview of the third generation drugs currently in clinical trials and also encompasses novel methodologies developed to discover third generation covalent EGFR drugs.

First generation epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (gefitinib and erlotinib) demonstrate excellent clinical efficacy for NSCLC patients carrying EGFR oncogenic mutations (L858R, del exon 19 deletions between amino acids 746 and 750). Invariable, drug resistance occurs with around 60% of it driven by the EGFR-T790M gatekeeper mutation. To counter the T790M-dependent resistance, third generation covalent EGFR inhibitors have been developed with high potency toward T790M containing mutants and selectivity over WT EGFR. This review provides an overview of the third generation drugs currently in clinical trials and also encompasses novel methodologies developed to discover third generation covalent EGFR drugs.

PI3K, AKT, and mTOR are key kinases from PI3K signaling pathway being extensively pursued to treat a variety of cancers in oncology. To search for a structurally differentiated back-up candidate to PF-04691502, which is currently in phase I/II clinical trials for treating solid tumors, a lead optimization effort was carried out with a tricyclic imidazo[1,5]naphthyridine series. Integration of structure-based drug design and physical properties-based optimization yielded a potent and selective PI3K/mTOR dual kinase inhibitor PF-04979064. This manuscript discusses the lead optimization for the tricyclic series, which both improved the in vitro potency and addressed a number of ADMET issues including high metabolic clearance mediated by both P450 and aldehyde oxidase (AO), poor permeability, and poor solubility. An empirical scaling tool was developed to predict human clearance from in vitro human liver S9 assay data for tricyclic derivatives that were AO substrates.

The c-MET receptor tyrosine kinase is an attractive oncology target because of its critical role in human oncogenesis and tumor progression. An oxindole hydrazide hit 6 was identified during a c-ME...

Lead optimization efforts that employed structure base drug design and physicochemical property based optimization leading to the discovery of a novel series of 4-methylpyrido pyrimidinone (MPP) are discussed. Synthesis and profile of 1, a PI3Kα/mTOR dual inhibitor, is highlighted.

Deregulation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling pathway such as by PTEN loss or PIK3CA mutation occurs frequently in human cancer and contributes to resistance to antitumor therapies. Inhibition of key signaling proteins in the pathway therefore represents a valuable targeting strategy for diverse cancers. PF-04691502 is an ATP-competitive PI3K/mTOR dual inhibitor, which potently inhibited recombinant class I PI3K and mTOR in biochemical assays and suppressed transformation of avian fibroblasts mediated by wild-type PI3K γ, δ, or mutant PI3Kα. In PIK3CA-mutant and PTEN-deleted cancer cell lines, PF-04691502 reduced phosphorylation of AKT T308 and AKT S473 (IC50 of 7.5–47 nmol/L and 3.8–20 nmol/L, respectively) and inhibited cell proliferation (IC50 of 179–313 nmol/L). PF-04691502 inhibited mTORC1 activity in cells as measured by PI3K-independent nutrient stimulated assay, with an IC50 of 32 nmol/L and inhibited the activation of PI3K and mTOR downstream effectors including AKT, FKHRL1, PRAS40, p70S6K, 4EBP1, and S6RP. Short-term exposure to PF-04691502 predominantly inhibited PI3K, whereas mTOR inhibition persisted for 24 to 48 hours. PF-04691502 induced cell cycle G1 arrest, concomitant with upregulation of p27 Kip1 and reduction of Rb. Antitumor activity was observed in U87 (PTEN null), SKOV3 (PIK3CA mutation), and gefitinib- and erlotinib-resistant non–small cell lung carcinoma xenografts. In summary, PF-04691502 is a potent dual PI3K/mTOR inhibitor with broad antitumor activity. PF-04691502 has entered phase I clinical trials. Mol Cancer Ther; 10(11); 2189–99. ©2011 AACR.

The design and development of a series of highly selective pyrrolidine carboxamide 11β-HSD1 inhibitors are described. These compounds including PF-877423 demonstrated potent in vitro activity against both human and mouse 11β-HSD1 enzymes. In an in vivo assay, PF-877423 inhibited the conversion of cortisone to cortisol. Structure guided optimization effort yielded potent and stable 11β-HSD1 selective inhibitor 42.

Steroids are used in a diverse range of conditions in clinical ophthalmology and one of the most significant complications is corticosteroid-induced glaucoma, which is characterized by an increase in intraocular pressure (IOP). 11beta-Hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-1 (11beta-HSD1) is known to catalyze the interconversion of hormonally inactive cortisone to hormonally active cortisol and is widely expressed in the eye, particularly ciliary epithelium. Carbenoxolone (CBX), an 11beta-HSD1 inhibitor, has been shown to reduce IOP in healthy volunteers and patients with ocular hypertension (OHT). The purpose of this study was to: (1) develop an in vivo model for the assessment of cortisone to cortisol conversion in the eye, that is, 11beta-HSD1 activity and (2) assess the pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic relationship following topical treatment with 11beta-HSD1 inhibitors using an in vivo rabbit model.Potent and selective 11beta-HSD1 inhibitors were topically administered to the rabbit eye and exogenous cortisone to endogenous cortisol conversion in the eye was assessed in rabbits. Tissues were then evaluated for cortisone, cortisol, and 11beta-HSD1 inhibitor levels by LC/MS/MS. Concomitantly cortisol activity in ocular tissue samples was determined using a secondary mechanistic pLuc-GRE assay.Topical treatment with potent and selective 11beta-HSD1 inhibitors resulted in complete inhibition in the conversion of cortisone to cortisol in the rabbit eye as well as decreased pLuc-GRE luciferase activity. The reduction of cortisone conversion was time- and dose-dependent as well as dependent on dosing volume (suggestive of increased spillover and washout with greater dosing volume).In conclusion, topical delivery of 11beta-HSD1 inhibitors can reduce or inhibit the conversion of cortisone to cortisol in the eye, indicating that the rabbit eye possesses an active enzyme for glucocorticoid synthesis. Dosing concentration and volume play an important role in the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects of topically delivering an 11beta-HSD1 inhibitor. The rabbit model is useful for mechanistically assessing the conversion of cortisone to cortisol in the eye.

The structure-activity relationship toward canine COX-1 and COX-2 in vitro whole blood activity of 4-hydrogen versus 4-cyano substituted 5-aryl or 5-heteroatom substituted N-phenyl versus N-2-pyridyl sulfone pyrazoles is discussed. The differences between the pairs of compounds with the 4-nitrile pyrazole derivatives having substantially improved in vitro activity are highlighted for both COX-2 and COX-1. This difference in activity may be due to the contribution of the hydrogen bond of the 4-cyano group with Ser 530 as shown by our molecular modeling studies. In addition, our model suggests a potential contribution from hydrogen bonding of the pyridyl nitrogen to Tyr 355 for the increased activity over the phenyl sulfone analogs.

We have successfully identified a number of novel MTP inhibitors with single digit nanomolar potency. Analogues 10aq and 10dq demonstrated in vivo efficacy in a murine gut retention assay.

The discovery of heteroaryl-phenyl-substituted pyrazole derivatives as canine selective COX-2 inhibitors is described. Structure–activity relationship (SAR) studies of this class of compounds led to the identification of compound 1 which demonstrated a canine whole blood COX-2 inhibitory IC 50 of 12 nM and selectivity ratio of COX-1/COX-2 greater than 4000-fold.

Structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies of the novel 2-[3-di and trifluoromethyl-5-alkylamino pyrazo-1-yl]-5-methanesulfonyl (SO(2)Me)/sulfamoyl (SO(2)NH(2))-pyridine derivatives for canine COX enzymes are described. The studies led to the identification of 2e as lead with potent in vitro activity, selectivity, and in vivo activity in dogs and cats.

The synthesis of a novel canine COX-2 selective inhibitor, 2-(3-difluoromethyl-5-phenylpyrazol-1-yl)-5-methanesulfonylpyridine, and its in vitro and in vivo profile are described. Pyrazole 8 demonstrated excellent potency and selectivity for canine COX-2 in both in vitro and ex vivo whole blood assays. This novel COX-2 inhibitor also showed a good pharmacokinetic profile (pk) following oral (po), intravenous (iv), and subcutaneous (sc) dosing and demonstrated excellent in vivo efficacy in a canine synovitis model.

Lanosterol synthase [(S)-2,3-epoxysqualene mutase (cyclizing, lanosterol forming), EC 5.4.99.7], the enzyme from Saccharomyces cerevisiae which catalyzes the complex cyclization/rearrangement step in sterol biosynthesis, was overexpressed in baculovirus-infected cells and purified to homogeneity in three steps. Using pure enzyme the kinetics of cyclization were determined using Michaelis−Menten analysis for 2,3-oxidosqualene (1) and two analogs in which the C−6 methyl was replaced by H (3) or Cl (4). The measured Vmax/KM ratios for 1, 3, and 4 were found to be 138, 9.4, and 21.9, respectively, a clear indication that oxirane cleavage and cyclization to form the A-ring are concerted, since the nucleophilicity of the proximate double bond influences the rate of oxirane cleavage. No catalytic metal ions could be detected in purified lanosterol synthase by atomic absorption analysis. Site-directed mutagenesis studies of each of the six strongly conserved aspartic acid residues (D → N mutation) and each of the...

Four 2,3-oxidosqualene analogs, 3, 4, 5, and 6, which are irreversible, time-dependent inhibitors of the enzyme lanosterol synthase, were found to attach covalently within the 231−236 (yeast number...

The relatively modest potency of inhibition of lanosterol synthase by the tetracyclic ammonium ion 10, a structural analog of the protosterol cation 4, IC50 = 22 μM, indicates that the protosterol cation is not strongly bound by the enzyme.

Lanosterol synthase converts the truncated analog 6 of 2,3-oxidosqualene ( 1 ) into three tricyclic products, 7 , 8 and 9 , each of which contains a five-membered C-ring. The results are in accord with expectations based on previous work indicating that the six-membered C-ring of sterols is formed via a five-membered predecessor.

Intra-molecular hydrogen bonding was introduced to the quinazoline motif to form a pseudo ring (intra-molecular H-bond scaffold, iMHBS) to mimic our previous published core structures, pyrido[2.3-D]pyrimidin-7-one and pteridinone, as PI3K/mTOR dual inhibitors. This design results in potent PI3K/mTOR dual inhibitors and the purposed intra-molecular hydrogen bonding structure is well supported by co-crystal structure in PI3Kγ enzyme. In addition, a novel synthetic route was developed for these analogs.

Pteridinones were designed based on a non-selective kinase template. Because of the uniqueness of the PI3K and mTOR binding pockets, a methyl group was introduced to C-4 position of the peteridinone core to give compounds with excellent selectivity for PI3K and mTOR. This series of compounds were further optimized to improve their potency against PI3Kα and mTOR. Finally, orally active compounds with improved solubility and robust in vivo efficacy in tumor growth inhibition were identified as well.

Structure–activity relationship (SAR) studies of novel 5-alkyl and 5-aryl/heteroaryl substituted 1,2,4-triazoles are described. The in vitro activity is compared to the pyrazole class of compounds with analogous side chains to delineate the contribution of the triazole ring nitrogen in binding to the active site. Both series are quite potent and selective in the canine whole blood (CWB) COX-2 assay, suggesting the increased binding contribution of the hydrophobic side chains.

Structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies of novel 2-[3-trifluoromethyl-5-alkyl(thio)ether pyrazo-1-yl]-5-methanesulfonyl pyridine derivatives for canine COX enzymes are described. The 4-cyano-5-alkyl ethers were found to have excellent potency and selectivity, whereas the 5-thioethers were potent but less selective than the ether analogs in a canine whole blood (CWB) COX-2 assay.