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National audience; Afin d’améliorer la compréhension des émissions de protoxyde d’azote du secteur de l’assainissement et permettre l’élaboration de leviers d’action de réduction, le sous-groupe de travail de l’Astee « Méthodologie de quantification des émissions de N2O » présentera l’avancement de ses travaux relatifs à l’évaluation des valeurs de référence des facteurs d’émission pour la quantification de ce puissant gaz à effet de serre et discutera des possibles leviers d’action.

HBr emissions from volcanoes lead rapidly to the formation of BrO within volcanic plumes and have an impact on tropospheric chemistry, at least at the local and regional scales. The motivation of this paper is to prepare a framework for further 3D modelling of volcanic halogen emissions in order to determine their fate within the volcanic plume and then in the atmosphere at the regional and global scales. The main aim is to evaluate the ability of the model to produce a realistic partitioning of bromine species within a grid box size typical of MOCAGE (Model Of atmospheric Chemistry At larGE scale) 3D (0.5∘ × 0.5∘). This work is based on a 1D single-column configuration of the global chemistry-transport model MOCAGE that has low enough computational cost to allow us to perform a large set of sensitivity simulations. This paper uses the emissions from the Mount Etna eruption on 10 May 2008. Several reactions are added to MOCAGE to represent the volcanic plume halogen chemistry. A simple plume parameterisation is also implemented and tested. The use of this parameterisation tends to only slightly limit the efficiency of BrO net production. Both simulations with and without the parameterisation give results for the partitioning of the bromine species, of ozone depletion and of the BrO/SO2 ratio that are consistent with previous studies. A series of test experiments were performed to evaluate the sensitivity of the results to the composition of the emissions (primary sulfate aerosols, Br radical and NO) and to the effective radius assumed for the volcanic sulfate aerosols. Simulations show that the plume chemistry is sensitive to all these parameters. We also find that the maximum altitude of the eruption changes the BrO production, which is linked to the vertical variability of the concentrations of oxidants in the background air. These sensitivity tests display changes in the bromine chemistry cycles that are generally at least as important as the plume parameterisation. Overall, the version of the MOCAGE chemistry developed for this study is suitable to produce the expected halogen chemistry in volcanic plumes during daytime and night-time.

In France, 70% of ammonia and 18% of greenhouse gas (GHG) originate from the livestock sector. Thus, improving knowledge on the magnitude and origin of gaseous emissions is essential to reduce them, and then meet societal requirements and setup regulations at national and European levels. A consortium involving research (Inra, Irstea) and technical development (Ifip, Itavi, Idele, CRAB, Terres Innovia, Arvalis) was created to implement a robust database (ELFE) gathering (inter)national literature references on gaseous emissions of poultry, pork, herbivore productions and related indicators. With the help of the database ELFE, we aim to determine emission factors (EF) for NH3, GHG, particles and odors in various technical itineraries integrating the different steps of animal and manure management (i.e. building, manure storage and treatment, spreading and pasture). Building the structure of the database was the first step of this project financed by the French Agency of the Environment and the Control of Energy (ADEME). Further on, national and international literature data were integrated into the database. At the moment, around 1,000 publications are recorded, essentially focusing on NH3 and GHG emissions. The next steps concentrate on data analysis to determine average EF’s per itinerary and EF-variability due to metadata (i.e. animal type, climate, diet, duration, storage type...). Outcomes will be published in scientific journals but also made available for stakeholders as guidance documents (i.e. fact sheets, technical reports). The purpose of these documents is to advise agricultural consultants and authorities on ways of reducing emissions and improving air quality in livestock production systems.

France is required to account for annual land-cover changes and induced carbon fluxes). This inventory is difficult to calculate, for data source are complex and contradictory. Moreover, this sector is important as its role in combating climate change is emphasized. This thesis proposes improvements to several identified methodological issues: imperfect data sources, lack of knowledge about other potential sources, , poorly evaluated uncertainties, validation of landscape dynamics consistency..Thus, the objective of this thesis is to analyse and assess current and potential data sources for computing land-cover change area matrixes, in order to enhance the robustness of the inventory. A scientific approach is conducted to assess the inventory, to understand what causes uncertainties in land cover products, to compile datasets and their metadata, to study the landscape dynamics, and to define a new methodological framework allowing better and more consistent estimates of land cover change rates at national scale.This work suggests that the finest spatial, thematical and temporal resolution levels lead to overestimation of false positives. Accuracy and consistency are preferable to precision and scale dependency must be considered. Finally, we propose an interoperability framework for data integration, via a modeling protocol linking land cover change estimation and spatial allocation.; Au titre de ses engagements, la France doit comptabiliser annuellement les changements d’occupation du sol et les flux de carbone associés. Cet inventaire, réalisé par le Citepa, est délicat à évaluer, car les données sources sont complexes et contradictoires. En outre, ce secteur présente des enjeux stratégiques dans la lutte contre le changement climatique. Les limites de cet inventaire sont de plusieurs ordres : données sources imparfaites ; manque de connaissance sur les autres données existantes pouvant être utilisées; incertitude mal évaluée ; nécessité de validation de la pertinence des dynamiques estimées. L’objectif de cette thèse est d’analyser et d’évaluer les données sources (actuelles et potentielles) des matrices de changements d’occupation du sol afin d’améliorer la robustesse de l’inventaire. Il s’agit d’expertiser par une démarche scientifique la pertinence de l’inventaire. En particulier, il s’agit de comprendre les causes des incertitudes des données sources ; compiler les données disponibles et leurs métadonnées ; étudier qualitativement les dynamiques paysagères; et redéfinir un cadre méthodologique permettant d’estimer des taux de changements plus pertinents.Les résultats de ces travaux montrent que les niveaux de résolutions spatiales, thématiques et temporelles les plus précis entraînent la détection de faux positifs : la pertinence est à préférer à la précision, et les effets de dépendance d’échelle doivent être pris en compte. La thèse propose enfin un cadre d’interopérabilité afin d’intégrer des données hétérogènes au sein d’un nouveau protocole de modélisation alliant rééstimation des changements et allocation spatiale.

Off-road equipment and machinery are used in a lot of areas (industry, construction, agriculture, residential). Contrary to transport vehicles, they are not registered as a result the number of existing materials is poorly known and emissions are directly calculated using the fuel consumption and the emissions limit values fixed for regulated pollutants or data from the literature for non regulated compounds. In that context, the aim of the EMNR project has been to fill in gaps in knowledge regarding atmospheric pollutant emissions from Off-road equipment and machinery. This report deals with the emissions from 2 steps gasoline engines (chain saw) and heavy-duty diesel vehicles (tractors) and the update of emissions inventory for Off-road equipment and machinery.; Les engins mobiles non routiers (EMNR) sont présents dans de nombreux secteurs d'activités (i.e. engins de l'industrie, du BTP, de l'agriculture/sylviculture et du résidentiel/tertiaire). Ces engins n'étant pas enregistrés comme ceux du transport routier, les parcs sont mal connus et les émissions sont calculées directement à partir des consommations de carburant et de facteurs d'émission issus des Valeurs Limites d'Emission fixées pour les polluants réglementés, ou de quelques publications pour les composés non réglementés. Dans ce contexte, l'objectif du projet EMNR a été de contribuer à l'amélioration de la connaissance des émissions polluantes des engins non routiers. Ce rapport traite des émissions de petits engins équipés de motorisations 2 temps essence et d'engins lourds équipés de moteur diesel (tracteurs) et de la remise à jour des inventaires nationaux d'émission pour les engins non routiers.

International audience; BACKGROUND AND AIM: Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is one of an important air pollutant due to its adverse effects on human health, however whether it is consistently associated with the risk of breast cancer (BC) is limited. In this study, we investigated the association between long term exposure to NO2 and risk of BC. METHODS: A total of 5,222 BC cases identified over the follow up period and 5,222 matched controls of a nested case-control study within a French E3N cohort study were examined. Mean exposure estimates to NO2 were estimated by CHIMERE and land use regression (LUR) models and assigned to the geocoded residential postal codes of participants for each year from recruitment 1990 through 2011. Multivariable conditional logistic regression models were used to compute odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: Overall, in all women, for each 1 interquartile range (IQR) increase in NO2 levels (CHIMERE: 11.1 ug/m3, LUR: 17.8 ug/m3), the ORs of the model adjusted for confounders were 1.16(95% CI: 1.06-1.26) and 1.09(95% CI: 1.01-1.18) according to CHIMERE and LUR measures, respectively. The corresponding ORs in the fully model additionally adjusted for established BC risk factors = 1.13(95% CI: 1.03-1.24) for CHIMERE and 1.07(95% CI: 0.99-1.16) for LUR measures. Comparable results were found for postmenopausal women. Substantial heterogeneity in the ORs was observed by hormone receptor status, using NO2 measured by CHIMERE the ORs of the model 3 was 1.17 (95% CI: 1.04-1.31) for ER. With LUR NO2, the OR of ER+BC in the fully model = 1.08 (95% CI: 0.98-1.19). CONCLUSIONS: We provide an evidence of an increase BC risk in association with long term exposure to NO2 air pollution according to CHIMERE and LUR measures, with risks being higher for CHIMERE model. Subgroup analyses suggested stronger effects especially in postmenopausal women and for hormone dependent BC.

International audience; BACKGROUND: Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is an endocrine-disrupting pollutant formed during incomplete combustion of organic materials. It has been recognized as a reproductive and developmental toxicant, however epidemiological evidence of the long-term effect of ambient air BaP on breast cancer (BC) is limited. Thus we evaluated associations between ambient air BaP exposure and risk of BC, overall and according to menopausal status and molecular subtypes (estrogen receptor negative/positive (ER-/ER+) and progesterone receptor negative/positive (PR-/PR+)), stage and grade of differentiation of BC in the French E3N cohort study.METHODS: Within a nested case-control study of 5222 incident BC cases and 5222 matched controls, annual BaP exposure was estimated using a chemistry-transport model (CHIMERE) and was assigned to the geocoded residential addresses of participants for each year during the 1990-2011 follow-up period. Multivariable conditional logistic regression models were used to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).RESULTS: Overall, cumulative airborne BaP exposure was significantly associated with the overall risk of BC, for each 1 interquartile range (IQR) increase in the concentration levels of BaP (1.42 ng/m(3)), the OR = 1.15 (95% CI: 1.04-1.27). However, by menopausal status, the significant positive association remained only in women who underwent menopausal transition (i.e. premenopausal women at inclusion who became postmenopausal at diagnosis), OR per 1 IQR = 1.20 (95% CI: 1.03-1.40). By hormone receptor status, positive associations were observed for ER+, PR + and ER + PR + BC, with ORs = 1.17 (95% CI: 1.04-1.32), 1.16 (95% CI: 1.01-1.33), and 1.17 (95% CI: 1.01-1.36) per 1 IQR, respectively. There was also a borderline positive association between BaP and grade 3 BC (OR per 1 IQR = 1.15 (95% CI: 0.99-1.34).CONCLUSIONS: We provide evidence of increased risk of BC associated with cumulative BaP exposure, which varied according to menopausal status, hormone receptor status, and grade of differentiation of BC. Our results add further epidemiological evidence to the previous experimental studies suggesting the adverse effects of BaP.

Over the past few decades, the digitalization of services and infrastructures has led to the emergence of a broad set of new information sources to characterize human mobility. These sources usually offer valuable significant population penetration rates but may also suffer from important temporal sparsity. Data generated by user activity, such as social networks or mobile phone data, especially fit this description. Although this temporal sparsity might prevent estimating individual travel speeds, we state that such low-frequency positioning data enable estimating the average urban traffic speed dynamics when considering an adequate network partitioning. In this sense, this article proposes a new method, based on the division of the urban area of a given city into regions and on the analysis of a limited set of basic characteristics of individual vehicle trips, such as the regional path. Our solution first involves estimating robust travel times from travelers sharing similar trip features and then jointly analyzing these travel times to deduce the underlying regional traffic speeds, using regression analysis. We apply this methodology on a set of trips derived from a large GPS dataset of vehicle tracks covering the city of Lyon. These data are purposely downsampled to reduce the sampling rate and reproduce bias and temporal features that are proper to sparser but larger-scale, mobility data sources dependent on user’s communication activities. Controlling the data downsampling process allows us to evaluate the impacts of the progressive information loss on the speed estimation, while the raw GPS data provide the ground truth speed reference against which to compare our results. Provided that the amount of observed individual trips is sufficient, the analysis returns satisfying speed estimation results, both at low and high downsampling levels. Thus, we successfully demonstrate that it is possible to estimate zonal traffic speeds from degraded trip data without evaluating individual travel speeds.

International audience; This paper reviews existing on-farm GHG accounting models for dairy cattle systems and their ability to capture the effect of dietary strategies in GHG abatement. The focus is on methane (CH4) emissions from enteric and manure (animal excreta) sources and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions from animal excreta. We identified three generic modelling approaches, based on the degree to which models capture diet-related characteristics: from 'none' (Type 1) to 'some' by combining key diet parameters with emission factors (EF) (Type 2) to 'many' by using process-based modelling (Type 3). Most of the selected on-farm GHG models have adopted a Type 2 approach, but a few hybrid Type 2 / Type 3 approaches have been developed recently that combine empirical modelling (through the use of CH4 and/or N2O emission factors; EF) and process-based modelling (mostly through rumen and whole tract fermentation and digestion). Empirical models comprising key dietary inputs (i.e., dry matter intake and organic matter digestibility) can predict CH4 and N2O emissions with reasonable accuracy. However, the impact of GHG mitigation strategies often needs to be assessed in a more integrated way, and Type 1 and Type 2 models frequently lack the biological foundation to do this. Only Type 3 models represent underlying mechanisms such as ruminal and total-tract digestive processes and excreta composition that can capture dietary effects on GHG emissions in a more biological manner. Overall, the better a model can simulate rumen function, the greater the opportunity to include diet characteristics in addition to commonly used variables. and thus the greater the opportunity to capture dietary mitigation strategies. The value of capturing the effect of additional animal feed characteristics on the prediction of on-farm GHG emissions needs to be carefully balanced against gains in accuracy, the need for additional input and activity data, and the variability encountered on-farm..

This study was part of the work done by the ANSES working group on ambient particulate matter (chemical composition and road traffic emissions); International audience; Air pollution from road traffic and its mitigation is a major concern in most cities. A platform for simulating pollutant emissions and concentrations was developed and applied to the Île-de-France Region (Greater Paris) of France, taking account of anthropogenic and natural sources and ‘imported’ pollution from elsewhere in France and Europe. Four technological scenarios for 2025 were studied and compared to the 2014 reference situation (1-REF). These scenarios included the current evolution of the park with widespread adoption of diesel particulate filters (DPFs) (2-BAU), decline in the sale of diesel vehicles and a corresponding increase in petrol vehicle sales (3-PET), promotion of electric vehicles in urban areas (4-ELEC), and a combinaison with a decrease in traffic of about 15% in the densely populated area inside the A86 outer ring road (5-AIR). The corresponding vehicle fleets were determined using a fleet simulation model.Traffic pollutant emissions were computed with the COPERT4 European methodology and hourly traffic data over the Île-de-France road network. Particulate matter (PM10, PM2,5 and PM1,0), particles number (PN), black carbon (BC), organic matter (OM), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), non-methane volatile organic compounds (VOC), ammonia (NH3), carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) were considered. Emissions for other sectors were taken from a regional inventory. Emissions outside the Île-de-France region (Europe and France) were derived from the European and French emission inventories. Pollutant concentrations (PM2,5, PM10, organic and inorganic PM10, PN, BC, NO2 and O3) were simulated over nested domains (Europe, France and Île-de-France) using the Polyphemus platform for two scenarios (2-BAU and 3-PET). Methodological aspects and results for Île-de-France are discussed here.All scenarios led to a sharp decrease in traffic emissions in Île-de-France (−30% to −60%) by 2025. The decline in diesel induced a stronger renewal of the fleet. PM and NOx emissions were more strongly reduced than VOC or NH3. Traffic reduction reduced all emissions in the densely populated area within the A86 outer ring road (−20% to −45% for exhaust particles and gaseous pollutants).The 2-BAU and 3-PET scenarios lowered annual average concentrations, especially for NO2 and BC, and more strongly influenced daily-peak than daily-average concentrations. In Île-de-France, PM of diameter

Background Although the genetic and hormonal risk factors of breast cancer are well identified, they cannot fully explain the occurrence of all cases. Epidemiological and experimental studies have suggested that exposure to environmental pollutants, especially those with potential estrogenic properties, as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) may have a role in breast cancer development. Being the most abundantly detected in human tissues and in the environment, congener 153 (PCB153) is widely used in epidemiological studies as indicator for total PCBs exposure. Objectives We aimed to estimate the association between cumulative atmospheric exposure to PCB153 and breast cancer risk. Methods We conducted a case-control study of 5222 cases and 5222 matched controls nested within the French E3N cohort from 1990 to 2011. Annual atmospheric PCB153 concentrations were simulated with the deterministic chemistry-transport model (CHIMERE) and were assigned to women using their geocoded residential history. Their cumulative PCB153 exposure was calculated for each woman from their cohort inclusion to their index date. Breast cancer odds ratios (ORs) associated with cumulative PCB153 exposure and their 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were estimated using multivariate conditional logistic regression models. Results Overall, our results showed a statistically significant linear increase in breast cancer risk related to cumulative atmospheric exposure to PCB153 as a continuous variable (adjusted OR = 1.19; 95% CI: 1.08–1.31, for an increment of one standard deviation among controls (55 pg/m3)). Among women who became postmenopausal during follow-up, the association remained statistically significant (adjusted OR = 1.23; 95% CI: 1.09–1.39). In analyses by hormone receptors status, the positive association remained significant only for ER-positive breast cancer (adjusted OR = 1.18; 95% CI: 1.05–1.33). Discussion This study is the first to have estimated the impact of atmospheric exposure to PCB153 on breast cancer risk. Our results showed a statistically significant increase in breast cancer risk, which may be limited to ER-positive breast cancer. These results warrant confirmation in further independent studies but raise the possibility that exposure to PCB153 increase breast cancer risk.

International audience; Improving air quality is a major challenge for public health and the environment. Assessing the contribution of agricultural activity to air pollution and the resulting impacts is a prerequisite for recommending mitigation practices. More important, their long-term adoption can only be justified by performing a real-time assessment of their effectiveness. Since the 1990s, using emission indicators, air contamination levels and environmental impacts has indeed become a widespread means of supporting decision-making at different levels, risk management and public policy assessment. However, this assessment is made difficult owing to the complex network of processes involved and the variability in pollutant emission and deposition. This chapter first details the methodologies implemented for emission inventories, used to better target the largest contributing sources, to check whether national commitments have been met, and to assess the trends. It also presents observation networks established to monitor background air pollution, deposition as precipitation, gases and particles in rural and forest areas, and impacts on terrestrial ecosystems. Finally, it outlines the indicators used to assess the impacts of agricultural practices on human and ecosystem health via the atmospheric compartment and it gives examples of their practical use to manage pollution risks, evaluate agricultural practices or compare agricultural products.

International audience

The accurate simulation of meteorological conditions, especially within the planetary boundary layer (PBL), is of major importance for air quality modeling. In the present work, we have used the Weather Research and Forecast (WRF) model coupled with the chemistry transport model (CTM) CHIMERE to understand the impact of physics parameterizations on air quality simulation during a short-term pollution episode on the Paris region. A lower first model layer with a 4 m surface layer could better reproduce the transport and diffusion of pollutants in a real urban environment. Three canopy models could better reproduce a 2 m temperature (T2) in the daytime but present a positive bias from 1 to 5 &deg, C during the nighttime, the multi-urban canopy scheme &ldquo, building effect parameterization&rdquo, (BEP) underestimates the 10 m windspeed (W10) around 1.2 m s&minus, 1 for the whole episode, indicating the city cluster plays an important role in the diffusion rate in urban areas. For the simulation of pollutant concentrations, large differences were found between three canopy schemes, but with an overall overestimation during the pollution episode, especially for NO2 simulation, the average mean biases of NO2 prediction during the pollution episode were 40.9, 62.2, and 29.7 &micro, g m&minus, 3 for the Bulk, urban canopy model (UCM), and BEP schemes, respectively. Meanwhile, the vertical profile of the diffusion coefficients and pollutants indicated an important impact of the canopy model on the vertical diffusion. The PBL scheme sensitivity tests displayed an underestimation of the height of the PBL when compared with observations issued from the Lidar. The YonSei University scheme YSU and Boulac PBL schemes improved the PBL prediction compared with the Mellor&ndash, Yamada&ndash, Janjic (MYJ) scheme. All the sensitivity tests, except the Boulac&ndash, BEP, could not fairly reproduce the PBL height during the pollution episode. The Boulac&ndash, BEP scheme had significantly better performances than the other schemes for the simulation of both the PBL height and pollutants, especially for the NO2 and PM2.5 (particulate matter 2.5 micrometers or less in diameter) simulations. The mean bias of the NO2, PM2.5, and PM10 (particulate matter 10 micrometers or less in diameter) prediction were &minus, 5.1, 1.2, and &minus, 8.6 &micro, 3, respectively, indicating that both the canopy schemes and PBL schemes have a critical effect on air quality prediction in the urban region.

International audience; Livestock is the main source of methane (CH4) emissions. It is important to accurately determine emissions from ruminants that meet standardized international guidelines for national greenhouse gas inventories. A new method to improve the accuracy of CH4 emissions that complies with IPCC rules for a Tier 3 method is described and evaluated. This method, developed by INRA (French Institute for Agricultural Research), was applied to the French inventory of CH4 emissions by ruminants and compared with the IPCC Tier 2 method. For enteric CH4, depending on the animal category, the INRA CH4 emission estimates lay between 88% and 114% of IPCC's. The INRA/IPCC ratio for enteric emission was close to unity and did not differ between methods (P = 0.43) for adult cows (i.e. most cattle). In France, feedlot manure is stored in aerobic conditions, and so the INRA/IPCC fit for manure emission was poorer (P

International audience

National audience

In France, agriculture is responsible for 98% of ammonia (NH 3 ) emissions with over 50% caused by nitrogen (N) fertilization. The current French national inventory is based on default emission factors (EF) and does not account for the main variables influencing NH 3 emissions. To model the spatio-temporal variability of NH 3 emissions due to mineral and organic N fertilization, we implemented a new method named CADASTRE_NH 3 . The novelty lies in the combined use of two types of resources: the process-based Volt'Air model and geo-referenced and temporally explicit databases for soil properties, meteorological conditions and N fertilization. Simulation units are the Small Agricultural Regions. Several sources of information were combined to obtain N fertilization management: census and surveys of the French Ministry of Agriculture, statistics on commercial fertilizer deliveries, and French expertise on physicochemical properties of organic manure. The practical interest of this new framework was illustrated for France during the crop year 2005/06. Aggregation at crop year level showed a reasonable agreement between estimated values derived from CADASTRE_NH 3 and those from the French inventory method, for N and ammoniacal-N (TAN) application rates, total NH 3 emissions and NH 3 EF. Discrepancies were large for organic manure only; national TAN application rates and NH 3 emissions were 62–63% lower with CADASTRE_NH 3 . This was due to divergences in the representation of cattle farm yard manure and in the TAN:N ratio of solid manure. Annual emissions for fertilization in France were estimated to be 270 Gg NH 3 , 29% lower than the French national inventory estimate. At the regional level, organic manure contributed to 73% of field NH 3 emissions in intensive livestock husbandry areas and to 41% in the other areas. The CADASTRE_NH 3 framework can be seen as a Tier 3 approach able to estimate specific regional EF for different mineral fertilizers and organic manure.

Purpose In a modern world increasingly perceived as uncertain, the mere purchase of a household cleaning product, or a seemingly harmless bottle of milk, conveys interrogations about potential hazards, from environmental to health impacts. The main purpose of this paper is to suggest that risk could be considered as one of the major dimensions of choice for a wide range of concerns and markets, alongside aspiration/satisfaction, and tackled efficiently by mobilizing the recent findings of cognitive sciences, neurosciences and evolutionary psychology. It is felt that consumer research could benefit more widely from psychological and evolutionary-grounded risk theories. Design/methodology/approach In this study, some 50 years of marketing management literature, as well as risk-specialized literature, was examined in an attempt to get a grasp of how risk is handled by consumer sciences and of whether they make some use of the most recent academic works on mental biases, non-mainstream decision-making processes or evolutionary roots of behavior. We then tested and formulated several hypotheses regarding risk profiles and preferences in the sector of insurance, by participating in an Axa Research Fund–Paris School of Economics research project. Findings It is suggested that consumer profiles could be enriched by risk-taking attitudes, that risk could be part of the “reason why” of brand positioning, and that brand, as well as public policy communication, could benefit from a targeted use of risk perception biases. Originality/value This paper proposes to apply evolutionary-based psychological concepts to build perceptual maps describing people and consumers on both aspiration and risk attitude axis, and to design communication tools according to psychological research on message framing and biases. Such an approach mobilizes not only the recent findings of cognitive sciences and neurosciences but also the understanding of the roots of risk attitudes and perception. Those maps and framing could probably be applied to many sectors, markets and public issues, from commodities to personal products and services (food, luxury goods, electronics, financial products, tourism, design or insurance).

Les composes atmospheriques, qu’ils soient de sources naturelles ou anthropiques, peuvent etre transformes, transportes sur de longues distances et transferes de l’atmosphere vers un autre reservoir via les retombees atmospheriques. Ces composes, bien que presents a l’etat de trace, peuvent generer des evenements de pollution, dont la prevision est utile a la protection de la sante publique, des milieux naturels et du climat. Au cours des trois dernieres decennies, des politiques de reduction des emissions polluantes ont ete mises en place en Europe et sur d’autres continents afin de limiter leurs effets. Pour un certain nombre de ces composes, l’efficacite de ces politiques peut etre evaluee par le suivi a long terme de la chimie des retombees atmospheriques, ainsi que sur la definition de charges critiques pour un ecosysteme, definies (le milieu forestier dans cet article) comme le depot anthropique maximal qui ne conduira pas a un depassement des concentrations critiques au sein du compartiment etudie, en l’etat actuel des connaissances. En France, des observatoires nationaux (MERA, RENECOFOR/CATAENAT) sont dedies a la surveillance des retombees atmospheriques depuis les annees 90. Parmi les elements majeurs inorganiques mesures depuis l’origine, les ions sulfates (SO42-), nitrates (NO3-) et ammonium (NH4+) sont particulierement suivis pour leurs impacts acidifiant et eutrophisant sur les ecosystemes. Ces ions solubilises dans l’eau sont issus de la transformation des gaz precurseurs SOX, NOX, et NH3 emis majoritairement par les activites anthropiques. La mutualisation des mesures de ces observatoires offre un jeu de donnees inedit pour etudier l’evolution de la composition chimique des retombees atmospheriques au niveau national ou europeen et permet une comparaison avec l’evolution des emissions des polluants primaires. Les variations sur les memes periodes des cartes de charges critiques et de leurs depassements permettent de constater directement les effets des politiques de reduction des emissions mises en œuvre sur les ecosystemes terrestres.

Context Lineage and birth of the EU ETS Almost like a living organism, the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU ETS) is one of the final lines of an elaborate and complex process. This process began years ago with the formal acknowledgment at international level “that change in the Earth's climate and its adverse effects are a common concern of humankind” (United Nations, 1992) and the recognition “that human activities have been substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, that these increases enhance the natural greenhouse effect, and that this will result on average in an additional warming of the Earth's surface and atmosphere and may adversely affect natural ecosystems and humankind” (United Nations, 1992). This recognition led to setting a goal, namely the “stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system” (United Nations, 1992). From this awareness and with this general objective in mind, a first operational step was taken with the highly publicized Kyoto Protocol (United Nations, 1997) which sets quantified emission reduction targets for each developed country. In order to fulfill these commitments while taking into account the technical, political and economic constraints, several tools were created including MRV procedures, flexibility mechanisms and a compliance committee. The role of the MRV procedures is to ensure that the developed Parties to the UNFCCC monitor and submit their annual emissions in a way which assures comparability and consistency with the rules of the Protocol (see Chapter 2 on national GHG inventories under the UNFCCC). The market-based mechanisms intend to provide Parties with the possibility to abate emissions where it is cheapest. The compliance committee ultimately judges whether Parties complied with the rules and mechanisms. In particular, it solves disputes between Parties, or between a Party and an expert review team (see Chapter 2 on national GHG inventories under the UNFCCC).

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This paper reviews the monitoring, reporting and verification of greenhouse-gas emissions needed for carbon-pricing and management mechanisms. The monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) of greenhouse-gas emissions is the cornerstone of carbon pricing and management mechanisms. Here we consider peer-reviewed articles and 'grey literature' related to existing MRV requirements and their costs. A substantial part of the literature is the regulatory texts of the 15 most important carbon pricing and management mechanisms currently implemented. Based on a comparison of key criteria such as the scope, cost, uncertainty and flexibility of procedures, we conclude that conventional wisdom on MRV is not often promoted in existing carbon pricing mechanisms. Quantification of emissions uncertainty and incentives to reduce this uncertainty are usually only partially applied, if at all. Further, the time and resources spent on small sources of emissions would be expected to be limited. Although provisions aiming at an effort proportionate to the amount of emissions at stake — 'materiality' — are widespread, they are largely outweighed by economies of scale: in all schemes, MRV costs per tonne are primarily driven by the size of the source.

Context The MRV of territorial/jurisdictional emissions, especially in the frame of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Kyoto Protocol, is the longest-lasting implementation of monitoring, reporting and verifying of GHG emissions. The concept of MRV was developed progressively in the frame of the UNFCCC and Kyoto Protocol through negotiation and scientific inputs from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The UNFCCC created an actual dynamic in this field, bringing together scientists, politicians, technicians and economists to build international consensus on how to track GHG emissions and their trends, in order to demonstrate compliance with emissions reduction targets. This MRV process has been applied for several years on a national scale the related experience and feedback are also useful for application to other scales. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted at the “Rio Earth Summit” in 1992. Initially signed by 154 nations, it has 195 parties to date (end of 2014). The ultimate objective of this Convention is “to stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system” (Article 2 of the Convention). The scope of this Convention was to monitor all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol. The countries which signed the Convention (so-called Parties) meet annually to assess progress in combating climate change and possible changes in the framework of the Convention. This is called the Conferences of the Parties (COP). Thus, common rules on MRV, among other topics, have been decided at the COPs. In particular, the 9th COP in 2003 decided that Parties have to use the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) guidelines as a reference of good practice for the national GHG emissions inventories. The Convention divides countries into two sets of Parties. Annex I Parties are the industrialized countries which were members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1992 as well as countries with Economies In Transition (EITs), i.e., the former communist bloc.

L'azote est un facteur clé de la production agricole et sa gestion a des conséquences très importantes sur l'environnement. En effet, les enjeux environnementaux d'une gestion durable de l'azote en agriculture concernent à la fois les ressources en eau, en air et la biodiversité. A l'instar des nitrates largement médiatisés depuis les années 80, les gaz azotés tels que l'ammoniac (NH3) et le protoxyde d'azote (N2O) ont des impacts très importants, tant sur la santé (humaine et animale) que sur le milieu naturel et méritent, de ce fait, qu'on leur accorde une grande attention. Les émissions de ces deux gaz relevant de l'activité humaine sont pour l'essentiel d'origine agricole et une grande partie provient des déjections des animaux d'élevage. Alors que les effets irritants, voire toxiques, de l'ammoniac se manifestent localement (vis à vis des éleveurs et des élevages), ses effets polluants sur l'environnement peuvent s'étendre sur une zone géographique beaucoup plus vaste. D'autre part, le protoxyde d'azote est un gaz à effet de serre dont le pouvoir radiatif est 310 fois plus élevé que celui du CO2. Dans cette brochure, il s'agit principalement de dresser l'état des connaissances sur l'ammoniac (NH3) et sur les autres gaz azotés notamment le protoxyde d'azote (N2O) - ayant un effet sur notre environnement - afin d'en dégager des orientations et des recommandations pouvant être utiles aux techniciens et aux instances décisionnelles. Sont abordées seulement les pratiques exercées au sein des exploitations agricoles et non dans l'ensemble du secteur agricole (fabrication d'engrais). Les émissions d'ammoniac peuvent être réduites en introduisant des mesures techniques au sein des exploitations d'élevage. Ces techniques comprennent des stratégies alimentaires pour réduire l'azote contenu dans les déjections animales (et donc le potentiel d'émission d'ammoniac), de nouvelles configurations des bâtiments d'élevage et des méthodes pour réduire les émissions issues du stockage et de l'épandage des déjections. Ce document s'articule en quatre volets : 1. Le premier volet propose de rappeler et de détailler les différentes étapes d'émission de composés azotés gazeux dans le cycle de l'azote et dans l'environnement. 2. Puis, le cas des émissions azotées provenant des activités agricoles en France est abordé sous l'angle de la quantification et des inventaires des différentes sources d'émission. 3. Le troisième chapitre poursuit avec les différents types de gestion et de transformation de l'azote à la ferme. 4. Le dernier chapitre propose des méthodes d'atténuation des émissions d'ammoniac et de protoxyde d'azote, tant au niveau des bâtiments d'élevage et du stockage, que de l'épandage au champ.