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Productivity is among the most popular and useful measures to control a firm's performance. It is usually defined as a ratio between a firm's final outputs and its inputs. Such a definition for productivity does not allow an accurate assessment of those organizational units operating in the early stages of the new product development process, whose outputs are distant from a firm's final ones. This article focuses on the organizational units operating on product design and engineering activities, considered a key competitive advantage source. Indeed, such units oversee major responsibilities in developing new products and improving existing ones. Therefore, monitoring product design and engineering units’ productivity is of pivotal importance, especially for firms whose business model heavily relies on new or continuously improved products. However, research on the productivity of product design and engineering units has been underdeveloped, and previous studies have called for research on the topic. Hence, this article outlines the features of product design and engineering activities, describing their similarities and differences with respect to research and development activities and to service activities. Consequently, it presents methodological insights to assess product design and engineering productivity and their illustrative implementation in Leonardo SpA, a global company in the Aerospace and Defence sector. Finally, the article outlines the theoretical and managerial implications of the study.

In recent years, the introduction and exploitation of innovative information technologies in industrial contexts have led to the continuous growth of digital shop floor environments. The new Industry 4.0 model allows smart factories to become very advanced IT industries, generating an ever-increasing amount of valuable data. As a consequence, the necessity of powerful and reliable software architectures is becoming prominent along with data-driven methodologies to extract useful and hidden knowledge supporting the decision-making process. This article discusses the latest software technologies needed to collect, manage, and elaborate all data generated through innovative Internet-of-Things (IoT) architectures deployed over the production line, with the aim of extracting useful knowledge for the orchestration of high-level control services that can generate added business value. This survey covers the entire data life cycle in manufacturing environments, discussing key functional and methodological aspects along with a rich and properly classified set of technologies and tools, useful to add intelligence to data-driven services. Therefore, it serves both as a first guided step toward the rich landscape of the literature for readers approaching this field and as a global yet detailed overview of the current state of the art in the Industry 4.0 domain for experts. As a case study, we discuss, in detail, the deployment of the proposed solutions for two research project demonstrators, showing their ability to mitigate manufacturing line interruptions and reduce the corresponding impacts and costs.

Global population growth, climate change, and food safety are some of the challenges that the agri-food sector is current facing. Addressing these in a sustainable way requires the adoption of sustainable-oriented innovations capable of developing new knowledge and reshaping production methods and business models. Digitalization and technological evolution in the agri-food sector, culminating within Agriculture 4.0 (A4.0), represent the latest revolution, as testified by the extant body of knowledge. The lack of a systematic model to map the body of knowledge in A4.0 and how it addresses the agri-food sustainability challenges represents the input of our review. We propose a systematic literature review to discover the research routes in A4.0, increasing the understanding of this paradigm as agri-food sustainability enabler. A taxonomy, composed of 566 terms grouped in seven categories representative of the extant research routes, is proposed: the names assumed by agri-food digitalization process, the main aims and issues of A4.0, the features of the agricultural sector, the parameters monitorable and calculable through A4.0, data, and technologies. It emerged that A4.0 absolve the role of enabler in sustainability agri-food providing to the company a set of data and technological sustainable oriented innovations able to solve, according to an interdisciplinary approach, environmental, social, and economic challenges. The findings identify research gaps and theoretical and practical implications for a wide range of stakeholders, such as engineering managers, agri-food companies, researchers, or companies involved in the web content analysis. Limitations and future research route complete the study.

This paper investigates the role of design in making firms eco-innovate. Going beyond the ‘packed’ approach of environmental studies about ‘eco-design’, we maintain that the eco-innovative impact of design is correlated with the firm’s decision to invest in it. In turn, design investment is assumed connected with the use firms make of design. By pooling the Eurobarometer 2015 and 2016 surveys, we test for these arguments with respect to a sample of nearly 4500 European and non-European (US and Switzerland) manufacturing firms. Results confirm that the firms’ capacity of eco-innovating increases when they invest in design, also by making this investment dependent on the role of design within the firm. The relationship between eco-innovation and design appears robust with respect to the different kinds of ‘eco-innovators’ that the Eurobarometer enables us to consider, while some interesting variability emerges when splitting the sample by group of countries and industries.

Purpose It is important to have a literature review to open any special issue as a way of introducing the state-of-the-art topics and link past research with the papers appearing in this special issue on IC in education. The paper aims to discuss this issue. Design/methodology/approach This research uses the structured literature to investigate the state-of-the-art and future directions of IC literature in education. In total, 47 articles are explored including nine from this special issue. Findings IC in education research is concentrated in Europe and mainly addresses IC in universities. Additionally, current IC research is progressing by examining IC practices inside universities using a third-stage IC approach, with new research also concentrating on third-mission outcomes, thus there is scope to continue IC and education research beyond universities. IC in education can also expand into fifth stage IC research, which abandons the boundaries of the educational institution and concentrate on the impact of IC and education on multiple stakeholders. Research limitations/implications Current IC in education research is too narrow and mainly investigates IC in European contexts using case study methodology. However, there is ample scope to widen research that develops new frameworks in different educational and country contexts using a wider range of research methodologies. IC in education needs to expand its boundaries so it does not lose its relevance, and thus be able to contribute to wider policy debates. Originality/value This paper presents the current state-of-the-art structured literature review of the articles investigating IC in education.

Purpose Energy and environmental concerns have gained a significant role in public policy agenda as well as in energy economics literature. As policies often rely on imprecise information on data and goals, fuzzy goal programming (FGP) modeling is a relevant choice to evaluate multi-criteria sustainability. This technique is suitable for the analysis of the Europe 2020 strategy plan dealing with several possibly conflicting objectives in economy, environment, energy and employment. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach The paper presents a FGP model for sustainable implementations for all European Union (EU) countries with respect to Europe 2020 policy goals and provides insights for decision makers to better satisfy conflicting criteria by suggesting optimal allocations of workers in several economic sectors. Findings The analysis shows an overall great performance of European Union countries in the environmental and social criteria and outlines the needs for significant additional policy measures to reduce energy consumption while increasing the economic output. Comparing the performance of countries within the European Union between those who adopted the euro and those who maintained national currencies shows that Euro countries tend to perform worse in terms of Europe 2020 sustainability, opening opportunities for further research to better investigate on the causes and determinants of these differences. Originality/value The paper presents a conceptual model of sustainable development that improves understanding of the concept and reconciles highly competing policy objectives in a common framework. Applying this model to all European Union countries offers both comparison and policy recommendations at a large new scale.

Purpose – An empirical testing on IBM smart cities projects was applied so as to demonstrate that the combination between the use of Internet of Things (IoT) and the implementation of the Open Innovation (OI) model within smart cities which has been changed the development of urban areas and effected firms’ innovativeness. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – A case study methodology on a leading multinational firms deeply involved in smart cities projects has been chosen. Findings – From this study it emerged how IBM: has a clear vision of smart cities and IoT; adopt a worldwide OI approach to smart cities; delineate-specific strategies and create OI units ad hoc for smart cities’ projects. Research limitations/implications – The major limitation of this work is that the analysis presented has been developed only on one case of multinational firm that operate in smart cities contexts. Practical implications – Recommendations will be made both to public and private actor in order to plan and implement efficient strategies to improve their performances. Originality/value – The concept of smart city has become quite popular between scholars and practitioners in the era of digital economy. Cities become smart developing new urban area using new Information and Communication Technologies such as mobile devices, the semantic web, cloud computing, and the IoT. Smart cities make innovation ecosystem, joining together different forces like knowledge-intensive activities, institutions for cooperation and learning, and web-based applications collective intelligence. This research is of importance and significance to scholars, government, and firms who need to understand the relevance of smart cities in the current economy.

Fenomeni quali la digitalizzazione e la globalizzazione stanno ridisegnando le condotte competitive di molte aziende. Le aziende sono spinte ad innovare, attraverso la definizione di nuovo strategie e il ridisegno delle strutture organizzative. I modelli di business sono determinanti nel supportare tali attività. L’innovazione dei modelli di business può assumere diverse forme a seconda del bisogno di adattamento dell’azienda all’ambiente. La capacità dell’azienda di attuare tali riconfigurazioni dipende dall’esistenza di adeguate competenze dinamiche che aiutano l’azienda a integrare, costruire e riconfigurare le risorse per adattarle ai mutati scenari. Tali competenze dinamiche risiedono a livello del top management in azienda ma coinvolgono anche altri attori organizzativi. Per affrontare questi temi, è stata effettuata la ricostruzione dei diversi approcci disciplinari ai costrutti oggetto della ricerca (business model, business model innovation e dynamic capabilities) con un’analisi della letteratura e una sua catalogazione in relazione alle diverse discipline e, nel caso degli studi organizzativi, alle diverse scuole. Le domande di ricerca identificate sono: Q1: Il top management attua l’innovazione del modello di business quando definisce un nuovo significato per l’offerta?; Q2: I manger modificano i componenti dei modelli di business?; Q3: I manager utilizzano le competenze dinamiche per sostenere il processo di innovazione?; Q4: Come vengono gestite le competenze dinamiche nel processo di innovazione? Sono domande che presentano tratti di novità nelle ricerche sull’innovazione dei modelli di business. Tali ricerche, infatti, si sono focalizzate sull’innovazione indotta da tecnologie digitali. Tale approccio pone una relazione troppo stretta tra tecnologia e modello di business. E’ parso necessario analizzare innovazioni non indotte dalla tecnologia quali l’introduzione di un nuovo significato per i prodotti ed i servizi offerti. Tale aspetto è di grande rilevanza, soprattutto per le aziende che possono fare leva sui elementi di heritage e di artigianalità come fattori di differenziazione. Si è utilizzata la metodologie dei casi con finalità esplorativa. Tale scelta trova la sua giustificazione della novità dell’argomenti e nella mancanza di studi precedenti da poter validare con un processo di ricerca. La complessità e l’interdisciplinarietà dei costrutti sottostanti le domande di ricerca richiede una metodologia ice permetta una lettura più aperta dei fenomeni. La selezione dei casi è stata originata dai lavori di Saebi sugli archetipi per l’innovazione dei modelli di business. Questi archetipi sono stati declinati all’interno della tematica dell’innovazione di significato.. I tre casi identificati si devono considerare come esplorazioni in altrettanti modelli di innovazione. La scelta dei casi si è basata su fattori relativi alla loro significatività, alla possibilità di osservare l’innovazione durante il suo svolgimento. I casi sono: Champagne KRUG; Eataly e Mutaforma. Tali realtà sono state analizzate attraverso interviste al top management team, l’analisi della letteratura aziendale, la raccolta articoli e materiali informativi nonché l’osservazione diretta. La fase di elaborazione ha fatto emergere degli elementi di novità che mettono in discussione il modello di innovazione sviluppato da Saebi e identificano un possibile nuovo set di competenze dinamiche, arricchendo quelle già identificate in letteratura. Si tratta di risultati di grande interesse che aprono la strada a nuovi studi sul tema e a futuri approfondimenti. Globalisation, digitalisation, rapid innovation cycles and significant changes in consumption patterns have increased the complexity and the speed of change of several markets. Firms are constantly challenged to innovate, through the definition of new competitive strategies and the redesign of organisational structures. Business models are determinant in helping companies in the innovation process. Business model innovation assume different forms depending on the need of the company to adapt to opportunities and threats. Different environmental conditions need to be matched through different degrees of business model modification. The ability of the company to reconfigure its business model for innovation purposes is strongly influenced by the existence of adequate dynamic capabilities. Such capabilities, could be defined ad higher order capacity that helps a firm integrate, build, and reconfigure internal and external resources to address and shape rapidly changing business environments. Such capabilities reside at the level of top management team, but they also involve the entire organisation. The way through which dynamic capabilities are put in place by companies to support different kind of business model innovation is an emerging research area as existing literature highlighted the relevance of dynamic capabilities for the introduction of company innovation, with a special focus on the introduction of new products or processes. However, being the studies about business model innovation still preliminary, a specific analysis of the contribution of dynamic capabilities to the introduction of business model innovation is missing. In order to address this issue the present work is divide into two parts: The first one deals with business Model, Business Model Innovation and Dynamic Capabilities construct descriptions. The evolution of business model construct is described, through the analysis of existing literature on the subject in the different research areas. Furthermore the role of business models in company growth is described, showing the differences between business model replication and innovation. Dynamic capabilities enable business model innovation and are tightly connected to the success of innovation practices. The second part of this work is devoted to the presentation of a case study research that focuses on the role of dynamic capabilities in supporting business model innovation driven by innovations in the meaning offered by the company. The purpose of this exploratory study was to investigate the role of business models in meaning driven innovation brought by top managers and the way through which they activate dynamic capabilities to reconfigure business model components. The sample is composed by three different companies representing the different business model innovation originated by different meaning enriched value propositions. The research results lead to several managerial and methodological implications. On the whole, several aspects of the relationships between business model innovation and dynamic capabilities are affected by the results. In the first place, the role of meaning as a source of value creation has been analysed and described. It is important to highlight that in all the cases top managers consciously modify business model components to foster the innovation brought by the adoption of new meanings. The identification and operationalisation of meanings is achieved by top managers thanks to the contribution of external consultants and informants. Dynamic capabilities play different roles and are differently activated by top managers.. Of the utmost importance is the identification of meaning interpretation and exploitation as a meta dynamic capability of top mangers. In fact, top managers use the introduction of new meaning to activate and give direction to sensing, seising and transformational dynamic capabilities.

Big Data rise made traditional data management techniques inadequate in many real life scenarios. In particular, the availability of huge amounts of data pertaining to user suggestions and searches calls for advanced analysis strategies in order to profitably leverage these data. Furthermore, heterogeneity and high speed of this data require suitable data storage and management tools to be designed from scratch. In this paper, we describe our proposal for analysing the way user searches and suggestions influence their social environment in order to quickly identify users able to spread their influence across the network. It is worth noting that, gathering information about user preferences is crucial in several scenarios like viral marketing, tourism promotion and food education.

In the last few years a vibrant multi- and trans-disciplinary debate has developed around the topic of sustainability in the management of human resources. The need to go beyond old approaches based on the “use” of human resources as “factor of production” has been outlined from different points of view. To contribute to the existing knowledge about the development of more efficient, effective and sustainable approaches in human resource management, this chapter aims to investigate possible pathways and key dimensions in defining more sustainable workplaces by acting on information sharing and cognitive involvement. A possible conceptual framework for clarifying different concepts of the workplace is proposed and some implications are outlined for managerial studies in the light of information sharing and cognitive involvement.

Fin dai tempi antichi l’ambiente rappresenta uno degli aspetti principali della vita umana. A tale riguardo gli antichi Greci e Latini scrissero diversi testi sulla forte interrelazione tra la vita umana e l’ambiente, sottolineando l’importanza di usufruirne senza però distruggerne l’equilibrio naturale. Questi antichi concetti risultano oggigiorno estremamente attuali. Le attività dell’uomo hanno alterato il naturale equilibrio a volte danneggiando l’ambiente in modo irrimediabile. Di conseguenza molti studi a livello nazionale ed internazionale cominciarono a focalizzarsi sulla Green Economy e sullo Sviluppo sostenibile. Il report dell’IEA presentato a Marrakech nel 2016 dimostra come l’economia globale stia diventando sempre più “verde”. In quanto l’argomento abbraccia numerose discipline, è sembrato utile approcciare la tematica inizialmente in modo ampio per poi focalizzarsi sull’economia aziendale. In generale lo scopo del lavoro è studiare come le aziende sono influenzate e a loro volta influenzano la Green economy. Questi argomenti sono affrontati nella tesi come segue. Il primo capitolo tratta i primi studi sull’ambiente e poi le ricerche svolte in Italia ed all’estero. Vengono quindi esposte le relazioni tra il sistema economico, sociale ed ambientale. Uno “sviluppo non sostenibile” comporta problemi ambientali come l’inquinamento dell’aria, dell’acqua, il rumore, l’inquinamento elettromagnetico e i rifiuti. Per affrontare questi problemi sono stati firmati diversi accordi internazionali a cui le aziende devono uniformarsi per permettere uno sviluppo sostenibile. Il secondo capitolo dà una visione generale della Green economy, evidenziando gli aspetti e i momenti principali del suo sviluppo. La Green economy, definita dall’UNEP (2011) come un miglioramento del benessere umano e dell’equità sociale, in grado di garantire al tempo stesso una significativa riduzione dei rischi ambientali e della scarsità ecologica, condiziona ed è condizionata dalla Business administration. Infatti per affrontare le questioni ambientali le aziende possono implementale pratiche green o essere attive in un business green. Il modello di Green economy qui utilizzato infatti, sottolinea due aspetti principali: le pratiche green implementate dalle aziende e i business green nei quali le aziende possono operare. Il terzo capitolo si focalizza sui business green, e dopo un’analisi della letteratura esistente, propone una classificazione dei possibili green business derivante dall’adattamento dei settori considerati green (vd. UNED o OCSE) alla classica classificazione ripresa dagli studi dell’economia aziendale (come Masini e Richardson). I capitoli quattro e cinque analizzano statisticamente uno dei business green individuati: il business del riciclo. È stato selezionato un campione di 87 aziende italiane (il cui core business è il riciclo di rifiuti) ed utilizzando un modello di regressione lineare sono state studiate le variabili correlate con la performance. Lo scopo è quindi di analizzare empiricamente dal punto di vista della Business administration uno dei business che fa parte della Green economy collegando quindi le due discipline. Per fare ciò è stata analizzata la performance economica del business del riciclo. Infatti un business green efficiente dal punto di vista economico comporta un effetto positivo sull’ambiente. La gestione dei rifiuti, e in particolare l'attività di riciclaggio, è una concreta applicazione dello sviluppo sostenibile. In sintesi, questa tesi rileva aspetti sia torici che empirici. In primis riassume la letteratura della Green economy e la analizza sotto la lente della Economia aziendale; in secundis, propone una classificazione delle imprese green, riadattata dalla letteratura esistente dell’Economia aziendale e della Green economy; in terzis, studia l'andamento generale e la performance delle aziende di riciclo italiane. Since the ancient time, the environment was one of the main part of human life. Latins and Greeks have written numerous lyrics and texts on the strong interconnection between human life and the environment, stressing the importance of using it without destroying the natural equilibrium. The ancient arguments are today extremely actual. Human activities, taking advantages of natural resources or due to accidents, have altered the natural equilibrium and have damaged the environment irremediably. As a consequence of that, the “Green economy” and the “Sustainable development” started to be the focus of many studies and both national and international directives. The IEA Report presented in Marrakesh, demonstrates that the global economy is becoming “greener”. Because the field is deeply interdisciplinary, it seems important to approach it initially from a multidisciplinary point of view, and then to analyze it under the lens of the Business administration discipline. In general, the aim of this work is to study how organizations are involved and affected by Green economy. The arguments here are elaborated in the thesis, which is structured as follows. Chapter one reports both the first studies on the environment and the more recent literature developed in Italy and abroad. Evidences of the link between the environmental, social and economic system, are suggested. The outputs of a “not sustainable development” are environmental issues, as air, water, noise, electromagnetic, land pollution and waste. To face these problems, international agreements have been signed and, to make the economic development sustainable, organizations must comply with the standards. The second chapter gives an overview of the Green economy, pinpointing the key aspects and the most relevant moments of its development. The Green economy, which results in improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities (UNEP, 2011), affects and is affected by Business administration. In fact, to face environmental issues, organizations can implement green practices or start a new activity choosing a green business. The Green economy model here used stresses two aspects: the green practices implemented by organizations and the green businesses in which organizations can operate. Chapter three focuses on the green businesses and, after the analysis of the existing literature, proposes a “green business classification” adapted from the main Business administration literature (as Masini or Richardson) and the international organizations (as UNEP or OCSE). Chapter four and five analyse statistically one of the green businesses: the recycling business. Therefore, I have selected a sample of 87 Italian organizations which core business is recycling, and using a model of multiple linear regression, I have studied the variables correlated with performance. The scope of the chapters is to analyze empirically a business that is part of the Green economy model to link Business administration field and Green economy. To do so, I have analyzed the economic performance of the recycling business. In fact, the economic efficiency of a green activity has positive effect on the environment itself. This concept links the economic and environmental performance that organizations active within a green business implement. In fact, waste management, and in particular recycling activity, is a concrete application of the sustainable development. In summary, this thesis is both theoretically and empirically relevant for several reasons. First sums up the Green economy literature and analyzes it under the lens of the Business administration; second, proposes a classification of the green businesses, readapted from the Green economy and Business administration literature and the legislation; third, it is studied the general trend and the performance of the Italian recycling organizations.

This article tackles the issue of local and global dynamics in a nonlinear duopoly with quantity setting (managerial) firms and horizontal product differentiation. It studies how the dynamics of a two-dimensional discrete time map evolves by focusing on changes either in the degree of product differentiation or the managerial power in the market share bonus. By combining mathematical techniques and numerical experiments, it shows that the Nash equilibrium of the game may not describe the long-term outcomes of the market. This holds because the fixed point of the map may be unstable or because different attractors (simple or chaotic) may capture the long-term dynamics of the model. The article also analyzes market dynamics when a new potential entrant tries to enter or, alternatively, a firm that was already in the market closes down and then tries to re-enter in a context where there is already an incumbent with a strictly positive quantity. The potential entrant may be subject to entry barriers or enters the market depending on the structure of consumers’ preferences and the demands of products of both varieties. In particular, the article analyzes some economic consequences of the non-invertibility of the map in the entry process.

This chapter considers different modelling approaches to study nonlinear monopolies with a downward and concave demand function based on the model by Naimzada and Ricchiuti (Appl Math Comput 203:921–925, 2008). In particular, the article characterises the dynamics of continuous time models with delays related to several assumptions regarding the bounded rationality of the monopolist. Some results about global dynamics are also obtained through simulations.

In the recent years great interest has been shown by both private organizations and independent researchers on Business Processes definition and management, which resulted in the development of several tools for their design and execution, and in proposals of standards for their formal representation, such as BPMN. At the same time, Cloud Computing solutions have reached a good level of maturity, with a high number of services and offers currently available to customers who, in turn, would benefit from a tool suggesting the most suitable Cloud services to leverage according to their specific requirements. In this paper a tentative approach for the mapping of Business requirements (expressed through BPMN diagrams) to Cloud services is proposed. In particular, semantic-web technologiessuch as OWL are proposed to ease the mapping process and to suggest users the best suitable Cloud services to leverage and compose.

The stagnation of the Italian economy over the last two decades is widely documented. During this period, the world economy has become highly integrated, and foreign outsourcing has become a standard practice for firms. While trade theory predicts benefits from the internationalization of production, Italy seems to have gained negligibly from it, or, rather to have lost. In a simple model, we show that this may be the case when markets are overregulated and competition policies are weak. We study a small open economy with one oligopolistic and one competitive sector, which outsources part of its production process abroad. Advances in globalization entail lower tariff rates of outsourcing. Contrary to the common wisdom, we show that national welfare is an inverted U-shaped function of tariffs. There exists a tariff threshold, below which the economy loses from globalization because the competitive sector overproduces and the oligopolistic underproduces (the oligopolistic good has a higher marginal effect on welfare). Competition policies that target the competitive sector lower the threshold and allow the economy to benefit from increased openness.

The determinants of risk disclosure in the annual reports of listed state-owned enterprises (SOEs) have yet to be fully explored. This paper examines the potential impact of the composition of the boards of directors and other company-specific features on risk disclosure levels. The presence of women on a board made a significant difference to risk disclosure, as did the age of board members. Board directors having an accounting or finance/business qualification affected risk disclosure negatively; company size and an internet visibility were positively related to risk disclosure. Although an Italian study, the lessons here will have application to academia and to practitioners, policy-makers and standard-setters worldwide.

The goal of this study is to investigate the problems caused by the rapid growth of the global economy, coupled with high population growth and the excessive exploitation of natural resources. The global economy will not be able to maintain its current speed of growth in the long term, so a paradigm shift in production and consumption is necessary, if the collapse of ecosystems and the concurrent depletion of natural resources are to be avoided. This is the reason why capitalism needs to take a turn towards a sustainable and naturally harmonized development model.

The main task of this work is to develope a model able to encompass, at the same time, Keynesian, demand-driven, and Marxian, profit-driven determinants of fluctuations. Our starting point is the Goodwin's model (1967), rephrased in discrete time and extended by means of a coupled dynamics structure. The model entails the combined interaction of a demand effect, which resembles a rudimentary first approximation to an accelerator, and of a hysteresis effect in wage formation in turn affecting investments. Our model yields ``business cycle movements either by means of persistent harmonic oscillations, or chaotic motions. These two different dynamical paths accounting for the behaviour of the system are influenced by its (predominantly) profit-led or wage-led structures.

La bibliographie n'a pas été publiée par l'éditeur; Durant la Renaissance, l'instrument de musique connaît un développement et des métamorphoses qui en font la base de notre culture musicale européenne " classique ". C'est à cette époque que se développent l'art et la musique de cour. L'étude organologique contribue ainsi à la compréhension de la musique savante, qui conserve cependant des caractéristiques montrant son enracinement territorial et ses liens encore forts avec les pratiques populaires. L'instrumentarium de la Renaissance, relativement plus documenté que celui du Moyen Âge (et donc plus étudié) en raison des sources écrites plus nombreuses (manuscrits, traités imprimés) et des quelques instruments conservés, reste très marqué jusque vers 1500 par les traditions médiévales. La Renaissance voit l'émergence du métier de faiseur d'instruments de musique. Un peu partout en Europe, les grandes cités donnent naissance à des corps de métiers spécialisés et régis par des statuts. Parallèlement au développement de la facture instrumentale et de la musique instrumentale, maîtres de chapelle, princes et mécènes constituent des collections d'instruments pour leur usage et leur délectation mais aussi pour montrer leur savoir et leur pouvoir. Peu de ces cabinets ont subsisté mais ils sont connus par les documents. L'évolution des technologies de fabrication est surtout sensible dans les instruments à cordes qui de monoxyles deviennent peu à peu assemblés. L'outillage est relativement bien connu grâce aux inventaires d'ateliers. Alors que très peu de témoignages matériels non transformés sont parvenus jusqu'à nous, l'iconographie musicale apportent une documentation parfois exceptionnelle sur les caractéristiques morphologiques, techniques et décoratives des instruments. Les traités, malgré leur instabilité terminologique, témoignent des premières tentatives de classification systématique et précisent avec plus ou moins de rigueur les caractéristiques, les conditions d'utilisation musicale et la place symbolique des instruments dans la société. L'utilisation des instruments par familles entières en ensembles homogènes, ou en ensemble composés associant divers instruments dans des compositions également polyphoniques, la diversification jamais retrouvée des instruments à anche, l'existence d'instruments à cordes consacrés à l'accompagnement de la poésie et le développement des instruments à clavier support de l'harmonie caractérisent cette période.

The paper presents a model for understanding the inner economy of live music programs and organisations at a micro level, according to a management and accounting perspective. The complexity and variety of situations and solutions in organizing live music is described with reference to a number of real events. As a way of handling such a complexity and variety in organising, a typology is proposed based on three distinct features that can be found, to a different extent, inside music entities: the preparation of the Premiere; the running of performances after the Premiere; and the management of a portfolio of music programmes. The typology is a tool to understand possible implications on the economy of music programs arising from different solutions to the issue of organising and related cost behaviour The paper presents a model for understanding the inner economy of live music programs and organisations at a micro level, according to a management and accounting perspective. The complexity and variety of situations and solutions in organizing live music is described with reference to a number of real events. As a way of handling such a complexity and variety in organising, a typology is proposed based on three distinct features that can be found, to a different extent, inside music entities: the preparation of the Premiere; the running of performances after the Premiere; and the management of a portfolio of music programmes. The typology is a tool to understand possible implications on the economy of music programs arising from different solutions to the issue of organising and related cost behaviour.