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Cold seeps play a distinctive geo-ecological role in the deep-sea environment, influencing the dynamics of submarine sedimentary settings and shaping the landscape evolution. In this study, we introduce a comprehensive methodology that utilizes ROV-based multibeam mapping and underwater photogrammetry to enhance our comprehension of the physical interactions among geomorphic features within the Hakon Mosby Mud Volcano (HMMV) and the associated habitat distribution. Our approach integrates data acquired by a work-class ROV at multiple resolutions and from various sources. Microbathymetry data obtained by the ROV revealed different fine-scale submarine landforms in the central region of HMMV, identifying three distinct geomorphic units, with the central hummocky region being the most complex. Further analysis of ROV images, utilizing a defined Structure-from-Motion (SfM) workflow, generated millimetric resolution 2D and 3D models for in-depth exploration of this region. Applying Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA) to orthomosaics enabled fine classification of main benthic communities, covering an area of 940 m2, including the active seepage zone of the ummhocky rim. Four major substrate types were identified: uncovered mud, high-density bacterial mats, low-density bacterial mats, and sediments with tubeworms. Investigating their relationship with terrain morphology and seepage activity at various spatial scales contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the ecological dynamics of cold seep ecosystems in mud volcanoes. The proposed workflow and innovative processing techniques presented in this study can serve as a model for future research on cold-seep systems. These investigations seek to resolve the interrelation of geomorphic, biogeochemical, and ecological processes in extreme environments marked by spatial patterns in associated habitats and sedimentary settings. This work comprises data collected during the CAGE21-1 cruise and within the framework of the IN

This study investigates the temporal variations in methane concentration and flare activity in the Hola trough (offshore Norway) during May 2018 and June 2022. Between these time periods, methane seep activity exhibits 3.5 times increase, as evidenced by hydroacoustic measurements. As the seep area in the Hola trough is constantly within the hydrate stability zone, the observed increase cannot be attributed to migration of its shallow boundary due to temperature increase. However, a combination of low tide conditions resulting in a lower sediment pore pressure and a bottom water temperature increase resulting in a lower methane solubility is likely to explain the increase in the number of seeps observed in June 2022. The hypothesis of tide influence is supported by data collected from a piezometer deployed and recovered during the cruise showing that the tidal effect was observed 3 m below the seafloor. Despite the numerous methane seeps detected, methane concentration and gas flow rates near the seafloor were low (<19 nM and <70 mL min−1, respectively) compared to other areas with methane seep activity. This is likely due to strong currents rapidly dispersing methane in the water column. Sub-seafloor investigations identified pathways for gas migration in methane seep areas, influenced by topography. This study provides valuable insights into the temporal dynamics of methane concentrations, flare activity, and gas distribution in the Hola trough, contributing to our understanding of offshore methane dynamics in the region.

Cold-seeps have a unique geo-ecological significance in the deep-sea environment. They impact the variability of present-day submarine sedimentary environments, affecting the evolution of the landscape over time and creating a variety of submarine landforms, one of which is Mud Volcanoes (MVs). MVs form due to mud, fluids, and gas extrusion, mainly methane, from deeper sedimentary layers. These natural gas seepage systems could significantly affect climate change and the global carbon cycle. We present a comprehensive method that combines ROV-based multibeam mapping and underwater photogrammetry to enhance the understanding of the physical relationships between geomorphic units characterizing the Hakon Mosby Mud Volcano (HMMV) and the distribution of associated habitats. HMMV is indeed characterized by high thermal and geochemical gradients from its centre to the margins, resulting in a clear zonation of chemosynthetic communities. Our approach integrates multi-resolutions and multi-sources data acquired using a work-class ROV. The ROV-based microbathymetry data helped to identify the different types of fine-scale submarine landforms in the central part of HMMV. This revealed three distinct geomorphic units, with the central hummocky region being the most complex. ROV images were analyzed using a defined structure from motion workflow to study this area further, producing millimetric resolution 2D and 3D models. Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA), applied on orthomosaics, allowed us to obtain a fine classification of main benthic communities covering a total area of 940m2, including the active seepage area of the hummocky rim. Four major substrate types were identified in these regions: uncovered mud, bacterial mats high-density, bacterial mats low- density, sediments and tubeworms. Their relationship with terrain morphology and seepage activity were investigated at different spatial scales, contributing to a deeper understanding the ecological functioning of cold s

In the Fram Strait, mid-ocean ridge spreading is represented by the ultra-slow system of the Molloy Ridge, the Molloy Transform Fault and the Knipovich Ridge. Sediments on oceanic and continental crust are gas charged and there are several locations with documented seafloor seepage. Sedimentary faulting shows recent stress release in the sub-surface, but the drivers of stress change and its influence on fluid flow are not entirely understood. We present here the results of an 11-month-long ocean bottom seismometer survey conducted over the highly faulted sediment drift northwards from the Knipovich Ridge to monitor seismicity and infer the regional state of stress. We obtain a detailed earthquake catalog that improves the spatial resolution of mid-ocean ridge seismicity compared with published data. Seismicity at the Molloy Transform Fault is occurring southwards from the bathymetric imprint of the fault, as supported by a seismic profile. Earthquakes in the northern termination of the Knipovich Ridge extend eastwards from the ridge valley, which together with syn-rift faulting identified in seismic reflection data, suggests that a portion of the currently active spreading center is buried under sediments away from the bathymetric expression of the rift valley. This hints at the direct link between crustal rifting processes and faulting in shallow sediments. Two earthquakes occur close to the seepage system of the Vestnesa Ridge further north from the network. We suggest that deeper rift structures, reactivated by gravity and/or post-glacial subsidence, may lead to accommodation of stress through shallow extensional faults, therefore impacting seepage dynamics.

The breakup of the Norwegian-Greenland Sea 56 million years ago was associated with massive basaltic magmatism and a short-lived global warming episode, the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). Scientific drilling in 2021 targeted sediments and volcanic rocks on the mid-Norwegian margin to test hypotheses related to the formation of large igneous provinces as well as global warming associated potentially with the igneous activity. High-resolution 3D site survey data facilitated optimal borehole locations during the drilling; key reflections were targeted using the high-resolution 3D data, and PETM stratigraphic intervals were recognized during shipboard core descriptions. Igneous seismic geomorphological interpretation, furthermore, reveals distinct volcanic morphologies on the marginal high, related to different volcanic emplacement environments.

Cold-seep systems have a unique geo-ecological significance in the deep-sea environment. They impact the variability of present-day submarine sedimentary environments, affecting the evolution of the landscape over time and creating a variety of submarine landforms, one of which is Mud Volcanoes (MVs). MVs are submarine landforms form due extrusion of mud, fluids, and gas, mainly methane, from deeper sedimentary layers. These natural gas seepage systems could significantly affect climate change and the global carbon cycle. We present a comprehensive method that combines ROV-based multibeam mapping and underwater photogrammetry to enhance the understanding of the geomorphic units characterizing the Håkon Mosby Mud Volcano (HMMV) and the distribution of associated habitats. HMMV is indeed characterized by high thermal and geochemical gradients from its center to the margins resulting in a clear zonation of chemosynthetic communities. Our approach integrates multi-resolutions and multi-sources data acquired using a work-class ROV. The ROV-based microbathymetry data helped to identify the different types of fine-scale submarine landforms in the central part of HMMV. This revealed three distinct geomorphic units, with the central hummocky region being the most complex. To further study this area, ROV images were analyzed using a defined Structure from Motion workflow producing millimetric resolution 2D and 3D models. Object-Based Image Analysis (OBIA), applied on orthomosaics, allowed us to obtain a fine classification of main benthic communities covering a total area of 940m2, including the active seepage area of the hummocky rim. Four major substrate types were distinctly imaged in these regions: uncovered mud, bacterial mats high-density, bacterial mats low-density, sediments and tubeworms. Their relationship with terrain morphology and seepage activity was investigated at different scale, contributing to a deeper understanding the ecological functioning of cold seep

Evaluation of seismic reflection data has identified the presence of fluid escape structures cross-cutting overburden stratigraphy within sedimentary basins globally. Seismically-imaged chimneys/pipes are considered to be possible pathways for fluid flow, which may hydraulically connect deeper strata to the seabed. These fluid migration pathways through the overburden must be constrained to enable secure, long-term subsurface carbon dioxide (CO2) storage. We have investigated a site of natural active fluid escape in the North Sea, the Scanner Pockmark Complex, to determine the physical characteristics of focused fluid conduits, and how they control fluid flow. Here we show that a multi-scale, multi disciplinary experimental approach is required for complete characterisation of fluid escape structures. Geophysical techniques are necessary to resolve fracture geometry and subsurface structure (e.g., multifrequency seismics) and physical parameters of sediments (e.g., controlled source electromagnetics) across length scales (m to km). At smaller (mm to cm) scales, sediment cores were sampled directly and their physical and chemical properties assessed using laboratory-based methods. Numerical modelling approaches bridge the resolution gap, though their validity is dependent on calibration and constraint from field and laboratory experimental data. Further, time-lapse seismic and acoustic methods capable of resolving temporal changes are key for determining fluid flux. Future optimisation of experiment resource use may be facilitated by the installation of permanent seabed infrastructure, and replacement of manual data processing with automated workflows. This study can be used to inform measurement, monitoring and verification workflows that will assist policymaking, regulation, and best practice for CO2 subsurface storage operations.

The Svalbard margin represents one of the northernmost gas hydrate provinces worldwide. Vestnesa Ridge (VR) and Svyatogor Ridge (SR) west of Svalbard are two prominent sediment drifts showing abundant pockmarks and sites of seismic chimney structures. Some of these sites at VR are associated with active gas venting and were the focus of drilling and coring with the seafloor‐deployed MARUM‐MeBo70 rig. Understanding the nature of fluid migration and gas hydrate distribution requires (amongst other parameters) knowledge of the thermal regime and in situ gas and pore‐fluid composition. In situ temperature data were obtained downhole at a reference site at VR defining a geothermal gradient of ~78 mK m‐1 (heat flow ~95 mW m‐2). Additional heat‐probe data were obtained to describe the thermal regime of the pockmarks. The highest heat flow values were systematically seen within pockmark depressions and were uncorrelated to gas venting occurrences. Heat flow within pockmarks is typically ~20 mW m‐2 higher than outside pockmarks. Using the downhole temperature data and gas compositions from drilling we model the regional base of the gas hydrate stability zone (BGHSZ). Thermal modeling including topographic effects suggest a BGHSZ up to 40 m deeper than estimated from seismic data. Uncertainties in sediment properties (velocity and thermal conductivity) are only partially explaining the mismatch. Capillary effects due to small sediment grain sizes may shift the free gas occurrence above the equilibrium BGHSZ. Changes in gas composition or pore fluid salinity at greater depth may also explain the discrepancy in observed and modeled BGHSZ.

Injection of CO2 in subsurface reservoirs may cause overburden deformation and CO2 leakage. The aim of this study is to apply technologies for detection and monitoring of CO2 leakage and deformation above the injection reservoirs. The examples of this study include data from the Vestnesa Ridge natural seep site, the Snøhvit gas field and CO2 storage site region, and the Gemini North gas reservoir. Reprocessing of existing 3D high-resolution seismic data allows resolving features with a vertical and lateral resolution down to c. 1 m and c. 5 m respectively. The current acquisition systems could be modified to image structures down to one meter in both the vertical and horizontal directions. We suggest a monitoring workflow that includes baseline and time-lapse acquisition of high-resolution 3D seismic data, integrated with geochemical, geophysical, and geotechnical seabed core and water-column measurements. The outcome of such a workflow can deliver reliable quantitative property volumes of the subsurface and will be able to image meter-sized anomalies of fluid leakage and deformation in the overburden.

During expedition MARIA S. MERIAN MSM57/2 to the Svalbard margin offshore Prins Karls Forland, the seafloor drill rig MARUM-MeBo70 was used to assess the landward termination of the gas hydrate system in water depths between 340 and 446 m. The study region shows abundant seafloor gas vents, clustered at a water depth of ~400 m. The sedimentary environment within the upper 100 meters below seafloor (mbsf) is dominated by ice-berg scours and glacial unconformities. Sediments cored included glacial diamictons and sheet-sands interbedded with mud. Seismic data show a bottom simulating reflector terminating ~30 km seaward in ~760 m water depth before it reaches the theoretical limit of the gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ) at the drilling transect. We present results of the first in situ temperature measurements conducted with MeBo70 down to 28 mbsf. The data yield temperature gradients between ~38°C km-1 at the deepest site (446 m) and ~41°C km-1 at a shallower drill site (390 m). These data constrain combined with in situ pore-fluid data, sediment porosities, and thermal conductivities the dynamic evolution of the GHSZ during the past 70 years for which bottom water temperature records exist. Gas hydrate is not stable in the sediments at sites shallower than 390 m water depth at the time of acquisition (August 2016). Only at the drill site in 446 m water depth, favorable gas hydrate stability conditions are met (maximum vertical extent of ~60 mbsf); however, coring did not encounter any gas hydrates.

The Vestnesa Ridge comprises a >100 km long sediment drift located between the western continental slope of Svalbard and the Arctic mid-ocean ridges. It hosts a deep water (>1000 m) gas hydrate and associated seafloor seepage system. Near-seafloor headspace gas compositions and its methane carbon isotopic signature along the ridge indicate a predominance of thermogenic gas sources feeding the system. Prediction of the base of the gas hydrate stability zone for theoretical pressure and temperature conditions and measured gas compositions results in an unusual underestimation of the observed bottom-simulating reflector (BSR) depth. The BSR is up to 60 m deeper than predicted for pure methane and measured gas compositions with >99% methane. Models for measured gas compositions with >4% higher-order hydrocarbons result in a better BSR approximation. However, the BSR remains >20 m deeper than predicted in a region without active seepage. A BSR deeper than predicted is primarily explained by unaccounted spatial variations in the geothermal gradient and by larger amounts of thermogenic gas at the base of the gas hydrate stability zone. Hydrates containing higher-order hydrocarbons form at greater depths and higher temperatures and contribute with larger amounts of carbons than pure methane hydrates. In thermogenic provinces, this may imply a significant upward revision (up to 50% in the case of Vestnesa Ridge) of the amount of carbon in gas hydrates.

We use new gas-hydrate geochemistry analyses, echosounder data, and three-dimensional P-Cable seismic data to study a gas-hydrate and free-gas system in 1200 m water depth at the Vestnesa Ridge offshore NW Svalbard. Geochemical measurements of gas from hydrates collected at the ridge revealed a thermogenic source. The presence of thermogenic gas and temperatures of ~3.3°C result in a shallow top of the hydrate stability zone (THSZ) at ~340 m below sea level (mbsl). Therefore, hydrate-skinned gas bubbles, which inhibit gas-dissolution processes, are thermodynamically stable to this shallow water depth. This was confirmed by hydroacoustic observations of flares in 2010 and 2012 reaching water depths between 210 and 480 mbsl. At the seafloor, bubbles are released from acoustically transparent zones in the seismic data, which we interpret as regions where free gas is migrating through the hydrate stability zone (HSZ). These intrusions result in vertical variations in the base of the HSZ (BHSZ) of up to ~150 m, possibly making the shallow hydrate reservoir more susceptible to warming. Such Arctic gas-hydrate and free-gas systems are important because of their potential role in climate change and in fueling marine life, but remain largely understudied due to limited data coverage in seasonally ice-covered Arctic environments.

High-resolution seismic experiments, employing arrays of closely spaced, four-component ocean-bottom seismic recorders, were conducted at a site off western Svalbard and a site on the northern margin of the Storegga slide, off Norway to investigate how well seismic data can be used to determine the concentration of methane hydrate beneath the seabed. Data from P-waves and from S-waves generated by P–S conversion on reflection were inverted for P- and S-wave velocity (Vp and Vs), using 3D travel-time tomography, 2D ray-tracing inversion and 1D waveform inversion. At the NW Svalbard site, positive Vp anomalies above a sea-bottom-simulating reflector (BSR) indicate the presence of gas hydrate. A zone containing free gas up to 150-m thick, lying immediately beneath the BSR, is indicated by a large reduction in Vp without significant reduction in Vs. At the Storegga site, the lateral and vertical variation in Vp and Vs and the variation in amplitude and polarity of reflectors indicate a heterogeneous distribution of hydrate that is related to a stratigraphically mediated distribution of free gas beneath the BSR. Derivation of hydrate content from Vp and Vs was evaluated, using different models for how hydrate affects the seismic properties of the sediment host and different approaches for estimating the background-velocity of the sediment host. The error in the average Vp of an interval of 20-m thickness is about 2.5%, at 95% confidence, and yields a resolution of hydrate concentration of about 3%, if hydrate forms a connected framework, or about 7%, if it is both pore-filling and framework-forming. At NW Svalbard, in a zone about 90-m thick above the BSR, a Biot-theory-based method predicts hydrate concentrations of up to 11% of pore space, and an effective-medium-based method predicts concentrations of up to 6%, if hydrate forms a connected framework, or 12%, if hydrate is both pore-filling and framework-forming. At Storegga, hydrate concentrations of up to 10% or 20%

A multi-component Ocean Bottom Seismometer (OBS) survey in the Ormen Lange area of the Storegga Slide constrained the existence of free gas and possibly gas hydrates in the shallow subsurface. The three investigated areas (A, B, C) lie in close vicinity to the slide scar above one of the largest deep-water gas reservoirs on the mid-Norwegian margin. Generally, P-wave and S-wave velocities are high compared to average velocities at a given burial depth due to an exposure of deeper sediments as a consequence of sediment mass movement by the Storegga slide. Indications for the presence of gas within the sediments exist for two of the three investigated areas. The gas accumulates beneath less permeable layers of glacigenic debris flow deposits. Average gas concentration of pore space in both areas is 0.9% (area A) and 0.15% (area B). The geophysical data do not allow a conclusive answer about the occurrence of gas hydrates. Their presence might be masked by high-velocity debris flow deposits, which occur in the subsurface. Nevertheless, gas hydrate concentrations of pore space have been estimated to about 9% in area A and 7% in area B.

Three classes of bottom simulating reflectors (BSR) cross-cut the post-breakup sediments of the mid-Norwegian margin. The first class is caused by free gas at the base of the pressure- and temperature-dependent gas hydrate stability zone. The second class of BSR is caused by the diagenetic transition from opal A to opal CT. The third class of BSR is always observed underneath the opal A/opal CT transition, but heat flow data and the amplitude characteristics of this arrival exclude one of the known silicate diagenetic transitions or gas hydrates as the explanation for this reflector. ODP Site 643 drilling results from the Vøring Plateau suggest two possible processes as the reason for this third BSR: (a) smectite illite conversion or (b) a sudden increase in the abundance of authigenic carbonates. The genesis of both is pressure- and temperature-dependent and could potentially result in a cross-cutting seismic reflector. The data are not conclusive as to which process is causing the third class of observed BSR.

The geologic setting of the formerly glaciated mid-Norwegian continental margin exerts specific controls on the formation of a bottom-simulating reflector (BSR) and the inferred distribution of gas hydrates. On the continental slope the lithology of glacigenic debris flow deposits and pre-glacial basin deposits of the Kai Formation prevent gas-hydrate formation, because of reduced pore size, reduced water content and fine-grained sediment composition. Towards the continental shelf, the shoaling and pinch-out of the gas-hydrate stability zone terminates the area of gas-hydrate growth. These geological controls confine the occurrence of gas hydrates and ensuing formation of a BSR to a small zone along the northern flank of the Storegga submarine slide and the slide area itself. A BSR inside the slide area indicates a dynamically adjusting gas-hydrate system to post-slide pressure–temperature equilibrium conditions. These observations, together with widespread evidence for fluid flow and deep-seated hydrocarbon reservoirs, suggest that the formation of BSR and gas hydrates on the mid-Norwegian continental margin is dominated by an advection of gas from the strata distinctly beneath the gas-hydrate stability zone. Fluids migrate upward within the Naust Formation and are deflected laterally by hydrated sediments and less permeable layers. Gases continually accumulate at the top of the slope, where overpressure eventually results in the formation of blow-out pipes and consequent pockmark development on the seabed.