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While 3-dimensional (3D) imaging by computed tomography has long been desirable for research and treatment of cochlear-implant patients, technical challenges have limited its wide application. Recent developments in scanner hardware and image processing techniques now allow image quality improvements that make clinical applications feasible. Validation experiments were performed to characterize a new methodology and its imaging performance.

The objective of this study was to create three-dimensional (3D) images for the histomorphological study of osteons. Medical imaging technology was used to register digitized 2D images of serial decalcified histological sections of bone, to segment the tissues of interest from the surrounding tissues, and to create 3D reconstructions from the segmented structures. Examination of the 3D reconstructions did not support suggestions in the literature that osteons have a spiraling organization. In contrast, the 3D reconstructions indicated that osteons have a complex pattern of organization that is dominated by branching. Examination of the reconstructions also suggested that osteons described in the literature as being dumbbell shaped are actually artifacts of the plane of sectioning. This study demonstrated the applicability of imaging and visualization technology developed for the 3D reconstruction of medical images to the reconstruction of digitized 2D images of serial sections of bone and additionally demonstrated the feasibility of using 3D reconstructions for the histomorphological study of osteons.

Objective: The ability to measure and visualize shape change (deformation) of a residual limb within and between prostheses is an important step toward improved prosthetic fit assessment. The objective was to develop measurement and visualization methods for below-knee residual limb soft tissue shape change after donning and loading a prosthesis to detect small shape changes (30mm or less)., Design: Spiral X-ray computed tomography imaging was utilized to acquire 3D volumetric data of the below-knee residual limb and prosthesis in situ from poor- and a good-fitting prostheses without and with a load. A new sum projection depth-shaded cylindrical mapping technique to measure and visualize small changes in shape was developed. From the volumetric data, the relative displacement of small lead markers placed on the residual limb's skin surface were measured using multiplanar reconstruction images and cylindrical maps. Displacement measurements averaging 15mm or less were obtained., Results: The precision and accuracy was 1mm and 2mm, respectively, when measuring the shape change or deformation of the skin surface from the sum projection cylindrical maps. The skin surface deformation was at least 7mm or greater when comparing marker locations between scans with the prostheses in situ., Conclusion: These new image-based measurement and visualization methods provide a feasible means for measuring and displaying lower extremity residual limb shape change within and between different prostheses with and without loading.

Stereology was used to measure frontal lobe volume on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans in a multi-observer repeated-measures trial in 17 adults. Prior to measurement, MR image volumes were reoriented into coronal sections perpendicular to the bicommissural plane. Three observers blinded to subject identify repeatedly used fixed grid stereology to estimate frontal lobe volumes, defined as all sections of the frontal lobe anterior to the anterior commissure. The lateral ventricles were excluded. Stereological measurement yielded high repeatability and precision, and was time efficient for the raters. The coefficient of error was 0.03. The inter-rater correlation coefficient = 0.95 for three raters; intra-rater correlation coefficients = 0.95-0.98. A comparison was made between stereological and traditional edge tracing measurement of the frontal lobe volumes. The overall correlation between the two methods was 0.95. The use of internal landmarks to define orientation and 3-D orthogonal views to define frontal lobe boundaries on 3-D images was critical to obtaining repeatable measurements. Frontal lobe volumetry by brain MR used to estimate small differences postulated to occur in certain psychiatric and neurologic disorders requires high precision and repeatability. Stereology, a semi-automated method, can reliably estimate frontal lobe volumes. This method may distinguish small frontal lobe volume differences within individuals and between groups.

The resolution requirements were determined for detection of incremental alveolar bone loss from digitized Ektaspeed radiographs. Ten clinical radiographs were examined with a calibrated optical microscope to measure the smallest feature of interest discernible for alveolar bone. Images of trabeculae > 100 microns in diameter could be identified, but smaller ones could not be resolved. The Nyquist Criterion requires sampling with 50 microns (or smaller) pixels to measure such features. Numerous 25 microns Ag aggregates were present. Fifty microns resolution is a practical compromise between noise level and feature resolution. In another example of 10 bitewings digitized at 8 bit grey scale, about half the available range was used for alveolar bone, resulting in uncertainty, over a range of 2 optical density (OD) units, of about 1.42% at the average OD for alveolar bone (1.1). With the same radiographs digitized at 12 bit resolution, over 2000 of 4096 grey scales were used with a corresponding uncertainty of about 0.09%. Twelve-bit precision was also able to resolve smaller increments in an aluminium stepwedge than was 8 bit precision. Twelve-bit grey scale and 50 microns spatial resolution are recommended for alveolar bone densitometry performed with Ektaspeed radiographs.

The repeatability and accuracy of brain surface cortical sulcal length measurements obtained with three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions of volumetric, gradient-echo magnetic resonance (MR) images were tested. The brains of eight healthy adult volunteers and one cadaver were imaged in both the coronal and sagittal planes to yield a set of 128 1.5-2.0-mm-thick contiguous sections. 3D reconstructions of the brain cerebral cortical surfaces were obtained with computer software. Location and distance measurements of surface sulci were repeated on each reconstructed image. The same structures in the cadaver brain were independently measured with a 3D electromagnetic digitizer to validate the results of the 3D MR imaging method. All measurements from reconstructed images had high repeatability, and there were no statistically significant differences between measurement trials. The accuracy of measurements with 3D MR imaging was also good; the mean difference between digitizer and 3D MR measurements for sulcal lengths was 0.81 cm (average, 5.45-12.9 cm).

One hundred two patients referred to our Esophageal Function Laboratory without endoscopic evidence of esophagitis were divided into two groups on the basis of the presence of a hiatal hernia on endoscopic examination. Fifty-three patients had a hiatal hernia and 49 did not. Both groups and 30 normal volunteer subjects had esophageal manometry and 24 hour esophageal pH monitoring. The incompetency of the cardia in patients with a hiatal hernia was dependent upon loss of components responsible for the antireflux mechanism, mainly a decrease in distal esophageal sphincter pressure and a decrease in the length of the sphincter exposed to the positive-pressure environment of the abdomen. These deficiencies were not related to the presence of a hiatal hernia and were similar to those of patients with an incompetent cardia without a hiatal hernia. Patients with a hiatal hernia and an incompetent cardia had significantly more esophageal exposure to refluxed acid than without a hiatal hernia. On the basis of the number of reflux episodes that lasted 5 minutes or longer and radioisotope transit studies, this increased acid exposure was due to both a loss of competency of the cardia and poor esophageal clearance secondary to the presence of a hiatal hernia. Reduction of the hernia and anchoring the distal esophagus into the abdomen not only may improve the antireflux mechanism, but corrects the clearance abnormality as well. The presence of a hiatal hernia has a detrimental effect on the clearance function of the body of the esophagus and may aggravate the effects of gastroesophageal reflux due to an incompetent cardia.