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Feltz, DL, Hill, CR, Samendinger, S, Myers, ND, Pivarnik, JM, Winn, B, Ede, A, and Ploutz-Snyder, L. Can simulated partners boost workout effort in long-term exercise? J Strength Cond Res 34(9): 2434-2442, 2020-We tested whether exercising with a stronger simulated (i.e., software-generated) partner leads to greater work effort compared to exercising alone, to help those seeking to maintain or improve fitness levels with long-term high-intensity training, but who find it necessary or practical to exercise in social isolation. Forty-one middle-aged adults, who participated in at least 30 minutes of vigorous exercise 3x·wk, trained on a cycle ergometer 6 days per week for 24 weeks in an alternating regimen of moderate-intensity 30-minute continuous and 3 types of high-intensity interval sessions (8 × 30-second sprints, 6 × 2-minute ladders, and 4 × 4-minute intervals). They were assigned either no partner (control), an always superior partner, or a not always superior partner. Participants varied cycle power output to increase or decrease session intensity during the repeated moderate-intensity sessions (30-minute continuous) and 1 of the 3 high-intensity sessions (4 × 4-minute intervals). Changes in intensity were used as a measure of effort motivation over time. Nested multilevel models of effort trajectory were developed and alpha was set to 0.05. For continuous and interval sessions, effort trajectory was positive and significant for those with an always superior partner, but not significantly different from control. Within interval sessions, those with an always superior partner significantly increased effort in the fourth interval compared to control (p = 0.02). Exercising with an always superior partner leads to greater work efforts during the hardest interval training compared to exercising alone.

We examined how competing with a software-generated partner (SGP) against another human/virtual partner team, in an exercise video game (exergame), affects individual motivation as measured by effort.Participants (n = 90; 49 female; Mage = 19.93 ± 1.48) were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: individual control (IC); conjunctive partner, no competition (PNC); or conjunctive partner, with competition (PWC). Participants performed the first series of exercises alone. After resting, those in the partnered conditions performed the remaining trials with a same-sex SGP. Those in the PWC condition were told that they and their virtual partner would be competing against another human-virtual partner team.A significant motivation gain was observed in both partnered conditions compared to control (P 0.001), but the partnered groups did not differ significantly. However, participants in the PWC condition enjoyed the task significantly (P 0.05) more than those in the PNC and IC conditions and the PWC participants identified more with the SGP as a teammate than the PNC participants.Altogether, intergroup competition with an SGP may be an enjoyable way to enhance motivation and performance while exercising.

Objectives This study explored the Kohler motivation gain effect utilizing adults and software-generated partners (SGPs) during an abdominal exercise regimen and compared the type of participant-SGP introductory dialogue as a moderator. The Kohler effect applies interdependent team dynamics in which group performance is dependent upon the weaker member. The third objective was to examine if this motivation paradigm would result in adverse consequences to secondary variables: exertion, enjoyment, and self-efficacy beliefs. Design Adults (Mage = 38.8 ± 7.7) were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions: Interactive Partner SGP (IP), Linear Dialogue Partner SGP (LDP), or individual control (IC), to complete a series of abdominal exercises. The experiment used a 3 (condition) x 2 (gender) ANCOVA design, with a baseline block of exercises as a covariate. Method Participants completed abdominal exercises individually and, after a rest, repeated the same exercises with either an SGP programmed to be moderately stronger or individually (IC). Prior to the second exercise block, IP participants interacted with the SGP using a dialogue tree optional-response format. The LDP participant introduction was a linear, scripted exchange of basic information. Results The LDP and IP conditions persisted significantly longer than IC, generating moderate effect sizes (d = 0.62; d = 0.76). The mean difference between partnered conditions was not significant. Conclusions The Kohler motivation exercise paradigm resulted in a considerable increase in persistence (Madj = 28.9, SE = 10.6) in the first study to use middle-aged adults with superior SGPs. Differences between introductory dialogue methods were not significant.

Research on active videogames (AVGs) has demonstrated the motivation-boosting power of the Köhler effect (a motivating force for "weak links" in groups based on group principles of upward social comparison and indispensability) with software-generated partners (SGPs), but the effect has yet to be examined over time. We tested the viability of the Köhler effect in an AVG with an SGP over 12 exercise sessions using a cycle ergometer and whether a fatiguing partner (FP) could further boost the effect.A repeated-measures design was used to assess mean changes in exercise persistence over time. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three game conditions: AVG alone (individual-control [IC]), AVG with a consistently superior partner (CSP), or AVG with a superior partner who showed signs of fatigue (FP). Assessments were conducted on 82 participants (42 college students and 40 adults from the community) in a laboratory over 12 experimental sessions. The main outcome measure was exercise persistence (minutes of gameplay cycling at 75% HRmax).Data yielded significant improvements in exercise duration for men in the FP condition when compared with men in the IC condition (Mdiff = 12:32 minutes, SEdiff = 4:54). Women showed no change in exercise persistence over time and no condition differences.Exercising in an AVG with a superior SGP, who shows signs of fatigue over time, improved exercise persistence for men but not for women under present experimental conditions.

This article presents a study on design models for Educational Digital Games, taking into account learning theories, game design models, game elements and user experience. Through a theoretical framework the research seeks to understand the different perspectives involved in these models, considering the interdisciplinary character of the developer teams and their target users. The aim of the research is to identify similarities, differences, and gaps between the models investigated. Thus, a literature review was conducted and four models for analysis were identified. As a method, both a comparative and a qualitative analysis of these models were used, based on a data analysis spiral combined with an analysis protocol. The analysis sought to identify pedagogical approaches, instructional design aspects and other elements involved in the design process. Game elements and user experience were also considered relevant for the analysis. As a result, this research presents a hybrid model which complements the analyzed models, using the investigated framework as a structural basis to assist developers and content specialists when designing educational digital games for teachers and students, according to the learning objectives and the theme addressed in the game. Finally, this article presents a brief analysis of the results obtained and considers how the present study may contribute to future investigations.

Fewer than half of college students meet physical activity (PA) recommendations. Active videogames (AVGs) may increase PA. The contribution that AVGs make to total PA is unknown. This study aimed to examine the contribution of AVG play to total PA and to compare sedentary, light, and moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA (MVPA) on game-days and non-game-days.For 1 week, the PA of 42 students (mean age, 20.4±1.3 years) was assessed by accelerometry. During this week an AVG was played one to three times, for 30 minutes each. The percentage contribution of AVG play to MVPA was calculated. To compare PA on game-days versus non-game-days, t tests were used.Students performed an average of 47.2±32.0 minutes of MVPA/day, during the monitored weekdays. MVPA during AVG play contributed 4.8±8.1 percent to total MVPA on game-days. The percentage of time spent in moderate PA was significantly higher on game-days (4.9 percent) than on non-game-days (3.3 percent).This is the first study to examine the contribution of AVG play to daily PA. These data support further investigation of AVGs as a means of increasing health-enhancing PA and reducing sedentary behavior among college students.

We developed a 'senior friendly' suite of online 'games for learning' with interactive calibration for increasing difficulty, and evaluated the feasibility of a randomized clinical trial to test the hypothesis that seniors aged 60-80 can improve key aspects of cognitive ability with the aid of such games. Sixty community-dwelling senior volunteers were randomized to either an online game suite designed to train multiple cognitive abilities, or to a control arm with online activities that simulated the look and feel of the games but with low level interactivity and no calibration of difficulty. Study assessment included measures of recruitment, retention and play-time. Cognitive change was measured with a computerized assessment battery administered just before and within two weeks after completion of the six-week intervention. Impediments to feasibility included: limited access to in-home high-speed internet, large variations in the amount of time devoted to game play, and a reluctance to pursue more challenging levels. Overall analysis was negative for assessed performance (transference effects) even though subjects improved on the games themselves. Post hoc analyses suggest that some types of games may have more value than others, but these effects would need to be replicated in a study designed for that purpose. We conclude that a six-week, moderate-intensity computer game-based cognitive intervention can be implemented with high-functioning seniors, but the effect size is relatively small. Our findings are consistent with Owen et al. (2010), but there are open questions about whether more structured, longer duration or more intensive 'games for learning' interventions might yield more substantial cognitive improvement in seniors.

Background Astronauts may have difficulty adhering to exercise regimens at vigorous intensity levels during long space missions. Vigorous exercise is important for aerobic and musculoskeletal health during space missions and afterwards. A key impediment to maintaining vigorous exercise is motivation. Finding ways to motivate astronauts to exercise at levels necessary to mitigate reductions in musculoskeletal health and aerobic capacity have not been explored. The focus of Simulated Partners and Collaborative Exercise (SPACE) is to use recently documented motivation gains in task groups to heighten the exercise experience for participants, similar in age and fitness to astronauts, for vigorous exercise over a 6-month exercise regimen. A secondary focus is to determine the most effective features in simulated exercise partners for enhancing enjoyment, self-efficacy, and social connectedness. The aims of the project are to (1) Create software-generated (SG) exercise partners and interface software with a cycle ergometer; (2) Pilot test design features of SG partners within a video exercise game (exergame), and (3) Test whether exercising with an SG partner over 24-week time period, compared to exercising alone, leads to greater work effort, aerobic capacity, muscle strength, exercise adherence, and enhanced psychological parameters. Methods/Design This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB). Chronic exercisers, between the ages 30 and 62, were asked to exercise on a cycle ergometer 6 days per week for 24 weeks using a routine consisting of alternating between moderate-intensity continuous and high-intensity interval sessions. Participants were assigned to one of three conditions: no partner (control), always faster SG partner, or SG partner who was not always faster. Participants were told they could vary cycle ergometer output to increase or decrease intensity during the sessions. Mean change in cycle ergometer power (watts) from the initial continuous and 4 min. interval sessions was the primary dependent variable reflecting work effort. Measures of physiological, strength, and psychological parameters were also taken. Discussion This paper describes the rationale, development, and methods of the SPACE exergame. We believe this will be a viable intervention that can be disseminated for astronaut use and adapted for use by other populations.

Empirical studies have validated that basic needs satisfaction supported by video game play predicts motivation and engagement outcomes. However, few studies specifically manipulated game features for each of the three basic needs specified in the self-determination theory (SDT) to examine how the game features impact players' need satisfaction and game experience. The current study employed an in-house developed exergame and manipulated the game features in a 2 (autonomy-supportive game features: on vs. off) × 2 (competence-supportive game features: on vs. off) experiment to predict need satisfaction, game enjoyment, motivation for future play, effort for gameplay, self-efficacy for exercise using the game, likelihood of game recommendation, and game rating. The manipulated game features led to the corresponding need satisfaction. Manipulated autonomy-supportive and competence-supportive game features had main effects on most motivation and engagement outcomes. Need satisfaction of autonomy and need sati...

Objective Active video games (AVGs) transform the sedentary screen time of video gaming into active screen time and have great potential to serve as a "gateway" tool to a more active lifestyle for the least active individuals. This pilot randomized trial was conducted to explore the potential of theory-guided active video games in increasing moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) among young adults. Method In this pilot 4-week intervention, participants were randomly assigned to 1 of the following groups: an AVG group with all the self determination theory (SDT)-based game features turned off, an AVG group with all the SDT-based game features turned on, a passive gameplay group with all the SDT-based game features turned on, and a control group. Physical activity was measured using ActiGraph GT3X accelerometers. Other outcomes included attendance and perceived need satisfaction of autonomy, competence and relatedness. Results It was found that playing the self-determination theory supported AVG resulted in greater MVPA compared with the control group immediately postintervention. The AVG with the theory-supported features also resulted in greater attendance and psychological need satisfaction than the non-theory-supported one. Conclusion An AVG designed with motivation theory informed features positively impacted attendance and MVPA immediately postintervention, suggesting that including AVG features guided with motivation theory may be a method of addressing common problems with adherence and increasing effectiveness of active gaming.

This 3-year study used a mixed-method design beginning with content analysis of games envisioned by 5th and 8th graders, followed by a survey of students in the same age range reacting to video promos representing these games. Results show that the designer's gender influences the design outcome of games and that girls expected that they would find the girl-designed games significantly more fun to play than the boy-designed games, whereas boys imagined that the boy-designed games would be significantly more fun to play than the girl-designed games. Boys overwhelmingly picked games based entirely on fighting as their top ranked games. Girls overwhelmingly ranked those same fighting games as their least preferred. Girls as designers consciously envisioned games with both male and female players in mind, whereas boys designed only for other boys. Both 8th-grade boy game ideas were liberally ``borrowed'' from a successful commercial game.

In many climates, irrigating shrubs during establishment is critical for long-term growth and survival. However, little research has been conducted to investigate irrigation requirements of newly transplanted container-grown shrubs. During two growing seasons, we investigated gas exchange and growth of newly planted container-grown crapemyrtle (Lagerstroemia indica ‘Victor’), forsythia (Forsythia × intermedia ‘Lynwood’), Vanhoutte spirea (Spiraea × vanhouttei), and photinia (Photinia × fraseri) transplants placed into landscape beds with and without organic mulch. After transplanting, plants were irrigated twice each week at the following rates: 100%, 75%, and 50% of reference evapotranspiration (ETO). In general, each year, transplants with mulch and transplants receiving 100% or 75% ETO-based irrigation had greater stomatal conductance when compared with transplants without mulch and transplants receiving less irrigation. Growth of transplants followed similar trends. However, it is key to note all transplants survived and appeared healthy throughout the growing season. Even transplants receiving 50% ETO were aesthetically pleasing and had growth acceptable for landscape situations. These findings should be useful for landscape irrigation scheduling and for irrigation managers incorporating water conservation into their landscape maintenance programs.

With the expanded genres of active videogames, one inevitably raises the question of whether it is worthwhile to use active videogames to promote physical activity if games involve violent themes. The purpose of the current study was to explore the effects of contextual cues of violence in an active videogame on (1) state hostility, (2) perceived arousal, (3) game enjoyment, (4) perceived effort in the game, and (5) activity intensity in the game.A one-factor between-subjects experiment with three conditions (minimal, moderate, and extreme contextual cues of violence) of playing an in-house-developed active videogame was conducted. Activity intensity was objectively measured using the ActiGraph (Pensacola, FL) model GT3X accelerometer. Psychological outcomes were measured using established scales.We did not find that the level of contextual cues of violence had any effect on the outcome variables, although the moderate level of contextual cues of violence resulted in a greater amount of feeling mean (P=0.011) and unsociable (P=0.038) among the players immediately after gameplay than players in the minimal contextual cues of violence condition. We did not find any statistically significant difference among the three conditions in terms of enjoyment, perceived arousal, or activity intensity.This study empirically examined the effects of contextual cues of violence in active videogames on player hostility, arousal, and enjoyment after gameplay as well as their physical activity intensity during gameplay. These findings provide some initial evidence to guide active videogame designers and researchers on how to design the games to be more engaging and thus elicit more activities among the players.

Background.Valid, reliable, accessible, and cost-effective computer-training approaches can be important components in scaling up educational support across resource-poor settings, such as sub-Saharan Africa. The goal of the current study was to develop a computer-based training platform, the Michigan State University Games for Entertainment and Learning laboratory's Brain Powered Games (BPG) package that would be suitable for use with at-risk children within a rural Ugandan context and then complete an initial field trial of that package.Methods.After game development was completed with the use of local stimuli and sounds to match the context of the games as closely as possible to the rural Ugandan setting, an initial field study was completed with 33 children (mean age = 8.55 ± 2.29 years, range 6–12 years of age) with HIV in rural Uganda. The Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA), CogState computer battery, and the Non-Verbal Index from the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd edition (KABC-II) were chosen as the outcome measures for pre- and post-intervention testing. The children received approximately 45 min of BPG training several days per week for 2 months (24 sessions).Results.Although some improvements in test scores were evident prior to BPG training, following training, children demonstrated clinically significant changes (significant repeated-measures outcomes with moderate to large effect sizes) on specific TOVA and CogState measures reflecting processing speed, attention, visual-motor coordination, maze learning, and problem solving.Conclusions.Results provide preliminary support for the acceptability, feasibility, and neurocognitive benefit of BPG and its utility as a model platform for computerized cognitive training in cross-cultural low-resource settings.

There are relatively few comprehensive and empowering educational tools to assist people with terminal illness in addressing important end-of-life issues. Identifying this scarcity, a design team of health and multimedia professionals created an interactive, educational CD-ROM entitled Completing a Life. The primary goal of the project was to provide rich content in a style that was easy to access, understand, and use. The interactive medium of the CD-ROM enabled a large amount and wide array of material to be presented in manageable segments. These segments are connected by hyperlinks, providing self-guided control over the selection, pace, and order of material. The CD puts the learning experience in the hands of the learner. The format and design is also intended to generate a sense of empowerment, at a time and around issues often associated with a loss of control. Completing a Life covers a wide range of information for the user to choose from, spanning physical, emotional, family, and spiritual issues. A calm and comforting tone and welcoming environment enhances the users' ability to take in the information and make proactive decisions about his/her own well-being and care. The CD contains video narratives of individuals who tell their own stories of living with terminal illness. In addition to being a highly relevant means of conveying sensitive, health-related information, this collection of personal interviews may offer a form of "virtual support group" for the user. Finally, the interactive format allows stories and informational content to be linked in topic-specific ways that complement one another.

The unique challenges in guiding players in an active video game (or exergame) using physical input devices are explored. The solutions discovered through the process of iterative design and multiple rounds of playtesting are discussed.

This chapter introduces a framework for the design of serious games for learning, called the design, play, and experience framework. The author argues that the great potential of serious games will not be realized without a formal design approach. To that end, the author presents and thoroughly explains the design, play, and experience framework which provides a formal approach to designing the learning, storytelling, game play, user experience, and technology components of a serious game. The author concludes by detailing how the framework provides a common language to discuss serious game design, a methodology to analyze a design, and a process to design a serious game for learning.

Objective To examine the effectiveness of three modalities for delivery of nutrition education. Design Between-subjects, repeated-measures design. Setting Data were collected at community agencies or during home visits. Participants Low-income, European American and African American mothers (N = 155). Intervention Participants were exposed to nutrition education material in 1 of 3 modalities (a computer game, The Fantastic Food Challenge; Web site; or pamphlet). Likeability, nutrition knowledge, intention to use, and demographic measures followed the intervention at T1 and T2. Main Outcome Measures 5-point Likert-type scales measured likeability (5 items), and 33 multiple-choice questions measured knowledge. Analysis Data were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) procedures using SPSS version 15.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL) software, P Results Overall, the Web site was liked more than the other conditions with this audience of women. Significant differences in attention, understanding, and intent to use the information existed across modalities. The Web site performed better than other modalities on knowledge outcomes, with no differences in knowledge retention from T1 toT2. Conclusions and Implications The Web site modality performed best with this audience of women, indicating that interactive computer games may not confer greater benefits than traditional modes of information delivery for all audiences, particularly those with low computer skills.

This NSF-funded two-year research project explores gender and age differences in attitudes toward technology, space exploration, game design, and learning from games. In addition to rigorously testing the proposition that all-girl design teams will envision substantively different education game experiences than all-boy design teams, this project will provide extremely elaborate baseline research to inform future design of highly entertaining learning games.By June 2003, we will have spent five months preparing our two-week Space Pioneer Adventures summer camp (offered to 10 fifth grade girls, 10 fifth grade boys, 10 eighth grade girls, and 10 eighth grade boys). Working in same-sex, same-age teams of five, in Week 1 they will experience a wide range of technologically delivered space-learning activities. In Week 2 they will envision their ideal space-learning game.Conference participants will see and provide feedback about our baseline participatory learning game-design research plan.

We have been using three-dimensional gels of native collagen fibres as a substratum for the study of cell migratory behaviour. The objective of this work has been to develop an experimental model system for the study of tumour cell invasion. Data are presented in this communication concerning the effects of a number of experimental parameters on the migration of human foreskin fibroblasts (normal) and a Syrian hamster melanoma cell line (tumour) into three-dimensional gels of native collagen fibres. We find that the migration of both these cell types into the gel matrix is affected by the concentration of collagen in the gel, as well as by the initial density of cells plated onto the gel and the density of cells in the stock culture dishes. These results are discussed in terms of the control of cell migration into the gel and also demonstrate the potential utility of this model system for the study of tumour cell invasion.