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Background: Parental psychopathology is associated with their children's posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS). However, the mechanisms through which this occurs remain unclear. We hypothesized that exposure to childhood adversities is the mechanism linking parental psychopathology to child PTSS and that parenting practices moderated these associations. Methods: Participants (N = 1,402) with an average age of 24.03 years old (SD = 2.20), were all Puerto Ricans (50% Male and 50% Female) from the Boricua Youth Study, which is a four‐wave longitudinal study spanning almost 20 years, following individuals from childhood (ages 5–13 at Wave 1) to young adulthood. Measured variables include parental psychopathology at Wave 1, childhood adversities and parenting practices at Waves 2–3, and PTSS at Wave 4. A traditional mediation model estimated the association between parental psychopathology and child PTSS via childhood adversities. A moderated mediation model was used to examine whether parenting practices moderated this mediation model. Results: Results showed that the total effect of parental psychopathology at Wave 1 on PTSS at Wave 4 was fully mediated by childhood adversities at Waves 2–3 (direct effect b = 1.72, 95% CI = [−0.09, 3.83]; indirect effect b = 0.40, 95% CI = [0.15, 0.81]). In addition, the magnitude of this pathway varied by levels of parenting practices (i.e. parental monitoring and parent–child relationship quality). Specifically, the indirect effect of additional adversities in the psychopathology‐PTSS link was stronger with higher levels of parental monitoring but weaker with higher parent–child relationship quality scores. Conclusions: Intergenerational continuity of psychopathology may be mitigated through the prevention of additional childhood adversities via upstream interventions, emphasizing providing parents with mental health needs with parenting tools. Family‐based interventions focused on providing families with the tools to improve parent–child relationships may reduce the negative impact of childhood adversities on mental health across the life course. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This cohort study examines 4 waves of data from the Boricua Youth Study to determine what sociocultural resilience factors in childhood are associated with better young adult mental health in the context of adverse childhood experiences. Key Points: Question: What childhood sociocultural resilience factors are relevant in the context of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)? Finding: This cohort study found that positive adult-child relationships were associated with a lower odds of later young adulthood depression and anxiety disorders regardless of exposure to ACEs. Higher family religiosity, unexpectedly, was associated with more perceived stress when ACEs were high. Meaning: Positive relationships with parents and with nonparental adults during childhood may reduce the risk of later mental disorders regardless of exposure to ACEs, but factors involving sources of meaning, such as family religiosity, may not be protective among children highly exposed to ACEs. Importance: Knowledge about childhood resilience factors relevant in circumstances of marginalization and high numbers of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) can improve interventions. Objective: To identify sociocultural resilience factors in childhood that are associated with better young adult mental health in the context of ACEs. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study examined 4 waves of data from the Boricua Youth Study, which included Puerto Rican children from the South Bronx, New York, and San Juan, Puerto Rico. Participants were aged 5 to 17 years at waves 1 through 3 (2000-2003) and aged 15 to 29 years at wave 4 (2013-2017). Linear and logistic regression models tested the associations of 7 childhood resilience factors and their interaction with ACEs on young adult mental health outcomes. Data were analyzed from June 2021 to October 2023. Main Outcomes and Measures: Perceived stress, major depressive disorder and/or generalized anxiety disorder (MDD/GAD), and substance use disorder (SUD) in young adulthood. Results: Among a total 2004 participants, the mean (SD) age at wave 4 was 22.4 (2.9) years; 1024 participants (51.1%) were female, and 980 (48.9%) were male. Positive parent-child relationships and nonparental adult support during childhood were associated with both lower perceived stress (β = −0.14; SE = 0.02; P <.001; β = −0.08; SE = 0.03; P =.003, respectively) and lower odds of MDD/GAD (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 0.84; 95% CI, 0.73 to 0.97; aOR = 0.81; 95% CI, 0.69 to 0.95, respectively) in young adulthood. Maternal warmth reported during childhood was also associated with lower young adult perceived stress (β = −0.11; SE = 0.02; P <.001). None of the resilience factors were associated with SUD. The resilience factors familism, friendships, and family religiosity were not associated with any of the mental health outcomes. ACEs were associated with poorer mental health outcomes; however, none of the resilience factors exhibited interactions consistent with being protective for ACEs. Unexpectedly, higher family religiosity was associated with more perceived stress in the presence of higher ACEs. Conclusions and Relevance: The results of this study suggest that promoting positive relationships with adults during childhood may reduce later young adulthood stress and MDD/GAD. However, there is still a need to identify sociocultural childhood protective factors for ACEs. Caution should be taken in assuming what resilience factors are relevant for a given group, as higher family religiosity (one postulated resilience factor) was unexpectedly associated with a stronger, rather than a weaker, association between ACEs and perceived stress in young adulthood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We used population sample data from 25 societies to answer the following questions: (a) How consistently across societies do adolescents report more problems than their parents report about them? (b) Do levels of parent-adolescent agreement vary among societies for different kinds of problems? (c) How well do parents and adolescents in different societies agree on problem item ratings? (d) How much do parent-adolescent dyads within each society vary in agreement on item ratings? (e) How well do parent-adolescent dyads within each society agree on the adolescent's deviance status? We used five methods to test cross-informant agreement for ratings obtained from 27,861 adolescents ages 11 to 18 and their parents. Youth Self-Report (YSR) mean scores were significantly higher than Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) mean scores for all problem scales in almost all societies, but the magnitude of the YSR-CBCL discrepancy varied across societies. Cross-informant correlations for problem scale scores varied more across societies than across types of problems. Across societies, parents and adolescents tended to rate the same items as low, medium, or high, but within-dyad parent-adolescent item agreement varied widely in every society. In all societies, both parental noncorroboration of self-reported deviance and adolescent noncorroboration of parent-reported deviance were common. Results indicated many multicultural consistencies but also some important differences in parent-adolescent cross-informant agreement. Our findings provide valuable normative baselines against which to compare multicultural findings for clinical samples. (Contains 5 tables and 1 figure.)

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether youth, family, and neighborhood factors and minoritized status are associated with youth-reported sexual victimization from childhood through young adulthood. METHODS: We analyzed longitudinal data from 2 populationbased samples of Puerto Rican youth living in the South Bronx (as a minoritized group) and Puerto Rico (as a nonminoritized group). Waves 1 to 3 were collected annually beginning in 2000 (youth age 5-13). Wave 4 was collected 2013 to 2017 (youth age 15-29). We estimated multivariable associations between youth, family, and neighborhood factors and minoritized status at Wave 1 (independent variables); and youth-reported sexual victimization at Waves 1 to 4 (dependent variables). RESULTS: None of the factors was associated with youthreported sexual victimization at Wave 1 (N = 1911). Among youth reporting no previous history of sexual victimization at Wave 1 (n = 1823), youth in the South Bronx vs Puerto Rico were more likely to report sexual victimization at Waves 2 or 3 (odds ratio (OR) [95% confidence interval (CI)] = 3.62 [1.46-8.97]). Older youth were less likely to report sexual victimization (OR [95% CI] = 0.77 [0.65-0.91]) (all P < .01). Among youth reporting no history of sexual victimization at Waves 1 to 3 (n = 1782), youth in the South Bronx (OR [95% CI] = 2.53 [1.52-4.22]), female youth (OR [95% CI] = 2.81 [1.83-4.30]), and youth whose parents had more than a high school degree (OR [95% CI] = 2.25 [1.38-3.67]) were more likely to report sexual victimization at Wave 4 than their counterparts (all P ≤ .001). CONCLUSIONS: Future research should investigate how living as a minoritized youth may contribute to an increased risk of sexual victimization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: Little is known about the effect of social context and gender on persistence of "attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder" (ADHD) in children of early and middle school years. The study compared persistence of "DSM-IV" ADHD and ADHD not otherwise specified (NOS) over 2 years in two groups of Puerto Rican children. Method: A three-wave study obtained data on Puerto Rican children 5 through 13 years of age at baseline. Samples were drawn in the South Bronx in New York (n = 1,138) and two metropolitan areas in Puerto Rico (n = 1,353). The Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV was used to diagnose ADHD and ADHD-NOS. Results: ADHD or ADHD-NOS diagnosis at wave 1 strongly predicted disorder at waves 2 and 3. ADHD had a significantly stronger predictive effect than ADHD-NOS consistently across site and gender. There was a significant interaction with baseline age. For those younger at baseline, the strength of the prediction of ADHD-NOS was relatively weak; for older children, the presence of ADHD-NOS at baseline predicted risk of subsequent ADHD or ADHD-NOS. Conclusions: Persistence of ADHD in children of similar ethnicity does not manifest differently across context and gender. Results suggest that age-specific symptom criteria and modification of age-of-onset criteria should be considered for the diagnosis. (Contains 1 figure and 2 tables.)

Objective: To examine the relation between parental familism (strong values of attachment to nuclear and extended family members) and youth antisocial behaviors over time. Method: Puerto Rican children 5 to 13 years of age at baseline residing in the South Bronx in New York (n = 1,138) and in the Standard Metropolitan Area in San Juan and Caguas, Puerto Rico (n = 1,353) were followed over two waves 1 year apart from 2000 to 2004. Parental familism was assessed using an adaptation of the Sabogal Familism Scale. Level of youth past-year antisocial behaviors was measured by the Antisocial Behavior Index. The association between familism and Antisocial Behavior Index over three waves was examined through mixed models stratified by age and gender, adjusted by site (South Bronx or San Juan), propensity scores reflecting site differences in family income, maternal age and education, plus environmental and child risk factors. Specific family processes were examined as potential mediators. Results: Parental familism was protective against antisocial behaviors in girls (estimate = -0.11, standard error = 0.03, p less than 0.001 for 5- to 9-year-olds; estimate = -0.15, standard error = 0.03, p less than 0.0001 for those greater than or equal to 10 years old). For boys, parental familism was only protective in 5- to 9-year-olds (estimate = -0.09, standard error = 0.03, p = 0.0008). The protective effect of parental familism on antisocial behaviors operated mostly through parent-child relationships for 5- to 9-year-old children and parental attitudes/behaviors toward youth high-risk behaviors for both age groups. Conclusions: Familism may protect youth against increasing levels of antisocial behaviors (except for boys who are greater than or equal to 10 years old). Incorporating familism as part of therapeutic approaches addressing antisocial behaviors for youth may be helpful. (Contains 3 tables.)

Although sex is one of the strongest correlates of crime, contentions remain regarding the necessity of sex-specific theories of crime. The current study examines delinquent trajectories across sex among Puerto Rican youth socialized in two different cultural contexts (Bronx, United States; and San Juan, Puerto Rico). Results indicate similar substantive offending trajectories across males and females within each cultural context, that males exhibit a higher frequency of offending and higher levels of risk factors for delinquency, and more similarities than differences in how risk/protective factors relate to patterns of offending across male versus female youth. Study limitations and implications for sex-specific criminological theories are also discussed. (Contains 6 tables, 4 figures and 7 notes.)

Objectives: The objectives of the present study were to (1) describe the prevalence of child maltreatment among migrant and non-migrant Puerto Rican families and (2) identify socio-demographic and cultural (i.e., acculturation pattern, familismo) predictors of maltreatment within these two samples. Method: Representative community samples of Puerto Rican children (ages 5-13 at baseline) and their adult caretakers were interviewed at two sites: the South Bronx in New York City (n = 631 families) and the Standard Metropolitan Areas of San Juan and Caguas in Puerto Rico (n = 859 families). Participants were re-interviewed 1 and 2 years following the baseline assessment. Results: While prevalence rates of maltreatment (physical abuse, 10%; sexual abuse 1%; neglect, 10%; and multi-type, 6%) did not differ between the two sites at baseline assessment, site differences emerged over time. Rates of physical abuse at follow-up were significantly higher in the Bronx compared to Puerto Rico. Further, for families living in the Bronx, living in poverty predicted "chronic" maltreatment, whereas living above the poverty line predicted "new cases" of maltreatment at follow-up. For families living in Puerto Rico, those who experienced physical abuse or multi-type maltreatment at baseline were more likely to report chronic maltreatment at follow-up regardless of poverty level. Cultural factors were not related to baseline or follow-up maltreatment at either site. Conclusion: Findings suggest that while rates of child maltreatment may be similar in migrant and non-migrant Puerto Rican families and when compared to prevalence rates in the US, predictors of maltreatment may differ. Practice implications: Since predictors of maltreatment may vary across population subgroups, studying homogenous samples will lead to more effective and targeted interventions. (Contains 2 tables.)

This study examined the trajectories of delinquency among Puerto Rican children and adolescents in two cultural contexts. Relying on data from the Boricua Youth Study, a longitudinal study of children and youth from Bronx, New York, and San Juan, Puerto Rico, a group-based trajectory procedure estimated the number of delinquency trajectories, whether trajectories differed across contexts, and the relation of risk and protective factors to each. Five trajectories fit the Bronx sample, and four fit the San Juan sample. Differences and similarities were observed. The Bronx sample had a higher rate of delinquency and sensation seeking and violence exposure strongly discriminated offender trajectories. In San Juan, the results were substantively the same. Thus, while the youth lived in different contexts, and the nature and level of delinquency varied across the sites, the effects of most risk factors were more similar than different. (Contains 6 tables, 2 figures, and 8 notes.)

The study discusses the differences in the prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) among Puerto Rican children and the influence of risk factors on mental health services, medication and psychostimulant use among them in two different contexts. The conclusion states that prevalence was similar regardless of context and receiving mental health services and medication including psychostimulants would depend on the differences in the levels of associated risks.

Background: The development of youth psychopathology may be associated with direct and continuous contact with a different culture (acculturation) and to distress related to this process (cultural stress). We examine cultural experiences of Puerto Rican families in relation to youth psychiatric symptoms in two different contexts: one in which migrant Puerto Ricans reside on the mainland as an ethnic minority and another in which they reside in their place of origin. Methods: "Sample": Probability samples of 10- to 13-year-old youth of Puerto Rican background living in the South Bronx, New York City (SB) and in the San Juan Metropolitan area in Puerto Rico (PR) (N = 1,271) were followed over time. "Measures": Three assessments of internalizing psychiatric symptoms (elicited through the DISC-IV) and of antisocial behaviors (ASB) quantified through a six-point index were carried out. Independent variables included scales of adult and child acculturation and cultural stress, and other putative correlates. "Data analysis": Within each study site, multilevel linear regression models were examined. Results: Parental acculturation was associated with ASB in youth at both sites, but youth acculturation itself was not related to psychiatric symptoms. At both contexts, cultural stress was a more consistent correlate of youth psychiatric symptoms than acculturation after controlling for nativity, maternal education, child gender, stressful life events and parental psychopathology. However, the strength of the youth cultural stress association decreased over time. Conclusion: The association between cultural factors and child psychiatric symptoms is not restricted to contexts where an ethnic group is a minority.

As a basis for theories of psychopathology, clinical psychology and related disciplines need sound taxonomies that are generalizable across diverse populations. To test the generalizability of a statistically derived 8-syndrome taxonomic model for youth psychopathology, confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were performed on the Youth Self-Report (T. M. Achenbach & L. A. Rescorla, 2001) completed by 30,243 youths 11-18 years old from 23 societies. The 8-syndrome taxonomic model met criteria for good fit to the data from each society. This was consistent with findings for the parent-completed Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001) and the teacher-completed Teacher's Report Form (Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001) from many societies. Separate CFAs by gender and age group supported the 8-syndrome model for boys and girls and for younger and older youths within individual societies. The findings provide initial support for the taxonomic generalizability of the 8-syndrome model across very diverse societies, both genders, and 2 age groups.

Objective: This report provides descriptive longitudinal findings over three waves of a study designed to assess the development of antisocial behaviors in young and early adolescent Puerto Rican children at two sites. Method: Through the use of standard assessment measures, representative samples of Puerto Rican children of both genders 5 to 13 years of age and their adult caretakers were interviewed at two sites: the South Bronx in New York City (n = 1,138) and the Standard Metropolitan Areas in Puerto Rico (n = 1,353; N = 2,491). Results: Although no differences in prevalence between the two sites were apparent at baseline, analyses of the longitudinal data show that site differences emerge over time, with a decrease in risk of antisocial behavior over time in the Standard Metropolitan Areas relative to the Bronx. Conclusions: The decreased risk of these disorders in the Standard Metropolitan Areas corroborates the low rates in Puerto Rico reported in previous research. Future analyses of these data are needed to identify the risk and protective factors associated with this difference. (Contains 4 tables and 1 figure.)

There is a growing need for multicultural collaboration in child mental health services, training, and research. To facilitate such collaboration, this study tested the 8-syndrome structure of the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) in 30 societies. Parents' CBCL ratings of 58,051 6- to 18-year-olds were subjected to confirmatory factor analyses, which were conducted separately for each society. Societies represented Asia; Africa; Australia; the Caribbean; Eastern, Western, Southern, and Northern Europe; the Middle East; and North America. Fit indices strongly supported the correlated 8-syndrome structure in each of 30 societies. The results support use of the syndromes in diverse societies.

This study compared parents' ratings of behavioral and emotional problems on the "Child Behavior Checklist" (Achenbach, 1991; Achenbach & Rescorla, 2001) for general population samples of children ages 6 to 16 from 31 societies (N = 55,508). Effect sizes for society ranged from 0.03 to 0.14. Effect sizes for gender were less than or equal to 0.01, with girls generally scoring higher on Internalizing problems and boys generally scoring higher on Externalizing problems. Effect sizes for age were less than or equal to 0.01 and varied across types of problems. Total Problems scores for 19 of 31 societies were within 1 "SD" of the overall mean of 22.5. Bisociety correlations for mean item scores averaged 0.74. The findings indicate that parents' reports of children's problems were similar in many ways across highly diverse societies. Nonetheless, effect sizes for society were larger than those for gender and age, indicating the need to take account of multicultural variations in parents' reports of children's problems.

Standardized assessment instruments developed in one society are often used in other societies. However, it is important to determine empirically how assessment instruments developed in one society function in others. The present study tested the fit of the Teacher's Report Form syndrome structures in 20 diverse societies using data for 30,030 6- to 15-year-old students from Asia; Australia; the Caribbean; eastern, western, southern, and northern Europe; and the Middle East. A correlated seven-syndrome model and a hierarchical Attention Problems model were tested separately in each of the 20 societies via confirmatory factor analyses. The results supported the fit of the models in the tested societies. (Contains 5 tables and 2 figures.)

This study compared teachers' ratings of behavioral and emotional problems on the Teacher's Report Form for general population samples in 21 countries (N = 30,957). Correlations between internal consistency coefficients in different countries averaged 0.90. Effects of country on scale scores ranged from 3% to 13%. Gender effects ranged from less than 1% to 5%, and age effects were all less than 1%. With great consistency across countries, scores were higher for boys than for girls on eight scales: Total Problems; Externalizing; the Attention Problems, Rule-Breaking Behavior, and Aggressive Behavior syndromes; and "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual" (DSM)-oriented Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Problems, Oppositional Defiant Problems, and Conduct Problems. Correlations between mean item ratings in different countries averaged 0.74. Teacher's Report Form results were thus similar across 21 very diverse countries, despite differences across these countries in school systems, models of pedagogy, and curricula. (Contains 2 figures and 4 tables.)

Objective: This is the first of two related articles on a study carried out between 2000 and 2003 designed to assess the prevalence, associated comorbidities, and correlates of disruptive behavior disorders in two populations of Puerto Rican children: one in the Standard Metropolitan Areas of San Juan and Caguas in Puerto Rico, and the other in the south Bronx in New York City. Method: This article provides the study's background, design, and methodology. Probability samples of children ages 5 to 13 years were drawn at the two sites (n = 2,491). Subjects and their primary caretakers were interviewed using the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children-IV and a wide array of risk factor measures. The samples were weighted to correct for differences in the probability of selection resulting from sample design and to adjust for differences from the 2000 U.S. Census in the age/gender distribution. Results: The samples are representative of the populations of Puerto Rican children in the south Bronx and in the Standard Metropolitan Areas in Puerto Rico. Of the 2,940 children identified as eligible for the study, 2,491 participated for an overall compliance rate of 85%. Conclusions: The study results, to be described in an accompanying report, are generalizable to the two target populations. (Contains 4 tables.)

Objective: This is the second of two associated articles. The prevalence, correlates, and comorbidities of disruptive behavior disorders (DBDs) in two populations are reported. Method: Probability community samples of Puerto Rican boys and girls ages 5-13 years in San Juan, and the south Bronx in New York City are included (n = 2,491). The Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children-IV and measures of correlates were employed to look at the association between DBDs and potential correlates, taking comorbidity into account. Data presented in this report were collected primarily between 2002 and 2003 but spanned a 3-year period from August 2000 to August 2003. Results: There were no significant age or site differences among males in rates of DBDs, but rates among females increased with age in the south Bronx and decreased with age in Puerto Rico. The salient comorbidity of DBDs was with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Multiple regression showed lack of parental warmth and approval, poor peer relationships, and parental report of aggressive behavior during the toddler years to be the most significant correlates of DBDs in this population. Conclusions: Cultural factors, such as level of acculturation, were not associated with DBDs. The results suggest that clinical and preventive efforts need to emphasize interpersonal factors such as parent-child relationships and peer interactions. (Contains 5 tables.)

Objective: This article provides the results of the psychometric testing of the Brief Impairment Scale (BIS). The BIS is a 23-item instrument that evaluates three domains of functioning: interpersonal relations, school/work functioning, and self-care/self-fulfilment. It capitalizes on the strengths of existing global measures while addressing some of their limitations. Method: Cross-sectional parent respondent data from one clinical (N = 757) and two community samples (N = 1,888 and 1,132) of children ranging in age from 4 to 17 years is employed to test the reliability and validity of the BIS. Receiver operating characteristic analyses are employed to assess useful cutoff scores on the scale. Results: The total scale's internal consistency ranged from 0.81 to 0.88 and from 0.56 to 0.81 on the three subscales. Test-retest reliability for individual items ranged from fair to substantial in all but six items. The BIS has high convergent and concurrent validity. Receiver operator characteristic analyses suggest possible thresholds for different uses. Conclusions: The BIS is psychometrically sound, useful in assessments and as an outcome measure in clinical practice and research. Its advantages over other global impairment instruments are that it is respondent based, short in administration time, and multidimensional. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry, 2005;44(7):699-707. Key Words: impairment, assessment instruments, multidimensional scales.