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Background As a biennial plant, Secale cereale L is usually harvested in the autumn in the northern part of China where the temperature difference between day and night is of great disparity Through the pot experiment, the seedlings were cut to 2, 6 and 10 cm stubble height, and the simulated freeze-thaw (FT) stress (10/− 5 °C) was carried out after 6 days regrowth. The physiological effects of FT with different stubble height were revealed by analyzing the relative water content (RWC), osmotic adjustment substance concentration (soluble sugar and protein), membrane peroxidation (MDA) and catalase (CAT) activity. Results The results demonstrated that under freeze stress (− 5 °C), the content of soluble protein and MDA decreased and the seedlings of 2 cm treatment kept higher level of soluble protein and MDA, while the seedlings of 6 and 10 cm treatments kept higher level of the RWC, soluble sugar content, and CAT activity. After FT stress, the content of soluble sugar and protein, RWC in the 6 cm treatment were higher than those in 2 cm and 10 cm treatments, and the CAT activity in 10 cm treatment was the highest while the MDA content is lower. Conclusion These data suggest that keeping high stubble height is more adaptive for short-term FT stress.

Lactuca raddeana is a biennial plant of the Lactuca genus belonging to the Asteraceae family. The classification of Lactuca is controversial, and no consistent conclusions have been reached based on the analysis of morphological characters and different molecular markers. Here, we sequenced and assembled the complete chloroplast genome of L. raddeana. This genome has a total length of 152,339 bp, a conservative quartile structure that is composed of a large single-copy (LSC) region of 83,976 bp, a small-copy (SSC) region of 18,521 bp, and a pair of inverted repeats (IRs) of 24,921 bp. The genome contains 112 unique genes, including 79 protein-coding, four rRNA, and 29 tRNA genes. Repeat analysis obtained 17 microsatellite, 16 tandem, and 17 interspersed repeats. Comparison of sequence divergence between L. raddeana and L. sativa found the intergenic spacer trnC-petN exhibited the highest degree of variation. Three phylogenetic trees based on the 72 shared protein, matK gene, and rbcL gene sequences showed that L. raddeana and L. sativa are clustered together. The acquisition and comparative analysis of the chloroplast genome provide a valuable resource for the taxonomic and phylogenetic studies of Lactuca.

Parsley is a biennial plant from the Apiaceae family that is used in the food, pharmaceutical, perfume and cosmetic industries. This plant has various mineral such as Fe and vitamins including A, B and C and grown in most parts of the world. Nano-fertilizers are a good alternative to sulfated fertilizers due to their higher solubility and gradual release of particles than conventional fertilizers. In order to investigate the effect of foliar application zinc on growth and yield of parsley, an experiment based on randomized complete blocks with 6 treatments and three replications was performed in the experimental field of Imam Khomeini Higher Agricultural Education Center. Treatments included foliar application of Nano zinc chelate fertilizer (0.5, 1 and 1.5 g/L) and zinc sulfate (1 and 1.5 g/L). The foliar application was performed in 4 to 6 leaf stage and repeated every 14 days till before harvesting. Number of leaves, plant height, leaf area, leaf length and width, fresh and dry weight of leaves and stems were measured. The results showed that the highest amount of the mentioned traits was obtained in the foliar application of 1.5 g/L Nano zinc chelate fertilizer and the lowest values were obtained at the control treatment. It is noteworthy that there is no significant difference between 1 and 1.5 g/L Nano zinc chelate fertilizer in terms fresh and dry weight of leaves and stems and both treatments are statistically in the same group. Therefore, foliar application of 1 g/L Nano zinc chelate fertilizer is economically recommended.

The peculiarity of the geographical location of the Pereyaslav Region, the existence of dense river nets (the Dnieper River, the Trubizh River, the Alta River, the Supiy River, etc.) and the diversity of landscapes led to the formation of the region rich in plant species. However, the vegetation cover of the region has been significantly transformed as a result of the construction of a hydroelectric power plant on the Dnieper River and the creation of the Kaniv Reservoir. The purpose of the article is to carry out a systematic, biomorphological and ecological analysis of the composition of wild medicinal plants of the Pereyaslav region. The research was conducted during 2018-2019 years on the territory of the Pereyaslav Region. The object of the study is the flora of wild medicinal plants of the Pereyaslav Region. The study was performed by means of the route, stationary and semi-stationary methods. During the field surveys (geobotanical descriptions) of the studied territory, the flora was described, species and families of the plants were determined, their location and ecological conditions of growth, life form, etc. were noted. As a result of the critical inventory of the species composition of the Pereyaslav flora, the systematic composition of wild herbs and medicinal plants of the region was first developed (582 species), consisting of 106 families and 360 species, among which there are vascular plants (Lycopodiophyta, Equisetophyta, Polypodiophyta) – 15 species, Pinophyta – 3 species, Magnoliophyta – 567 species. The biomorphological analysis of wild herbs and medicinal plants of the Pereyaslav Region was performed and it was established that the vast majority of species belong to hemicryptophytes (316 species). It was found that in the studied territory the diversity of wild medicinal plants is represented by trees (27 species), shrubs (28 species), subshrubs (10 species), perennial herbaceous plants (387 species), biennial plants (46 species) and annual plants (84 species). It has been established that the ecological-coenotic nature of valuable species of plants in the study consists of forest (170 species), meadow (145 species), meadow-steppe (114 species), synanthropic phytocenoses consist of 95 species and wetland ecotopes – 58 species.

One of the most valuable medicinal plants is milk thistle (Silybum marianum) or martighal. An annual or biennial plant of the Asteraceae family and English name Milk thistle, a Matte green colour and prickly plant with a standing stem that can be thick, simple, or slightly branched (ramified). Its seeds contain about 70%–80% of the flavonolignans of silymarin and about 20%–30% of polymeric and oxidized polyphenolic compounds (such as tannins). Traditionally, the plant has been used to increase milk secretion, relieve menstrual cramps, lessen depression, decrease gallstones, and jaundice as well as improve functions of the liver, spleen, and kidney. This review reviews studies on the effects of adding milk thistle to quail diet. Consumption (0.5% and 1%) of milk thistle powder in the diet of Japanese quail significantly increased feed intake, body weight, and improved carcass components. Blood constituents including total protein and albumin were improved along with decreased HDL, ALT, and AST. The use of milk thistle levels (0.5% and 1.5%) significantly improved the antioxidant total of plasma. Consumption of silymarin in quail diet increased the number of white blood cells, calcium, vitamin D3, and albumin. Silymarin also decreased the relative weights of bursa of Fabricius and spleen. This review indicates that milk thistle can improve growth performance, feed conversion ratio, and immune system in quail., The appetizing effects of the milk thistle plant lead to better use of feed and improve growth of some laboratory animals. The use of silymarin in quail increased total protein and albumin and decreased serum glucose concentration. Its use in conditions of oxidative stress could have a positive effect on the humoral immunity system of laboratory animals such as Japanese quail. Silymarin decreased the relative weights of bursa of Fabricius and spleen, increased the relative weight of the thymus as well as the number of white blood cells in them. The diet containing milk thistle in Japanese quail increased feed intake and body weight and increased the yield of breast, thigh, and carcass components. Relative weight of liver, heart, pancreas, prestomach, gizzard, and intestine increased. An increase in bursa size, spleen, and carcass fat was also observed and caused the enzyme alkaline phosphatase, IgA and IgG in different levels of MTS to have a decreasing effect compared to the control treatment.

A growing number of medicinal and edible plants have attracted increasing attention due to their abundant constituents and biological activities including turnip. Turnip (Brassica rapa L.) is an herbaceous biennial plant belonging to Cruciferae Brassica. As one of the oldest cultivated vegetables widely consumed in Asia, the turnip has received significant attention in the studies of its bioactive components and biological function. Multiple bioactive components in turnip, such as glucosinolates, isothiocyanate, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and organic acids, were identified. The bioactivity studies on turnip revealed its anticancer, antimicrobe, anti-hypoxia, anti-diabetes, anti-oxidation, and nephroprotective activity. The present review mainly summarized the previous studies on the chemical compositions of turnip and the bioactivities associated with turnip. Further studies on the extraction and purification of compounds from a turnip as well as its potential molecular mechanisms are highly needed to utilize turnip as a functional food plant in a better way.

Green roofs (GRs) are proposed to offset against numerous environmental and socio-economic concerns associated with climate change and urban sprawl. In Mediterranean urban areas, to protect and conserve biodiversity through GRs, the use of native plant species from arid environments and with shallow roots is generally recommended. In north Europe, Echium vulgare L. is widely used on GRs for its tolerance to abiotic stresses and its attractiveness for bees; unfortunately, since this species requires cold winters to induce flowering and warm wet summers for vegetative growths, its adaptability to Mediterranean GRs has been questioned. The current study is based on the hypothesis that Echium plantagineum L. can adapt better to the Mediterranean environment than E. vulgare and offer blooms to pollinators, thus providing the important urban ecosystem service (UES) of protecting entomofauna biodiversity. To compare the adaptability of E. plantagineum vs. E. vulgare, both Echium species were grown and studied on the extensive GR installed at ENEA Casaccia Research Center, in the north of Rome, Lazio, Italy. The comparative analysis of the GR performance of the two species was based on several plant-related traits, including seed morphology, rosette stage, inflorescence, flower and root-related traits, and their biological life cycle, most of them showing significant differences (for example, rosette area was 1.42-fold major in E. plantagineum than in E. vulgare). The information provided in this manuscript will be useful to update the herbarium records for conservation biology. A dramatic water stress was purposely applied in the GR before the end of the hot summer season, and while E. plantagineum faced with success the imposed dehydration (88.4% vegetation cover), E. vulgare did not (7.5% vegetation cover), presumably because of its biennial life cycle which did not allow it to complete seed maturation (only 46.9% percentage mature seeds in E. vulgare respect to 89.5% in E. plantagineum). In summary, as the main result, this work shows that in Mediterranean areas, the inclusion of E. plantagineum in seed mixes for flower meadow GRs could represent a valuable alternative to E. vulgare in temperate areas, providing a safeguard for pollinators and allowing water and energy saving.

Livestock grazing is one of the major land uses, causing changes in the plant community's structure and grasslands composition. We assessed the effect of grazing intensity on aboveground biomass, species richness, and plant functional group (PFG) diversity in a temperature meadow steppe in Hulunbuir in northern China, involving 78 plant species from eight functional groups. Four grazing intensity classes were characterized, including light, moderate, heavy, and no grazing, based on stocking rates of 0.23, 0.46, 0.92, and 0.00 animal units per hectare. Our results show that the richness of short species, including perennial short grass, perennial short grass, and legume increased under light to moderate grazing, while no effect of grazing was observed on the richness of shrubs. With increasing grazing intensity, the aboveground biomass of perennial tall grasses and perennial tall forbs decreased significantly, while that of annual/biennial plant functional groups increased. The community diversity and evenness of annual/biennial plants increased significantly with grazing intensity. We concluded that heavy grazing has negative impacts on plant functional group richness and aboveground biomass.

Oil rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) is a typical winter biennial plant, with high cold tolerance during vegetative stage. In recent years, more and more early-maturing rapeseed varieties were planted across China. Unfortunately, the early-maturing rapeseed varieties with low cold tolerance have higher risk of freeze injury in cold winter and spring. Little is known about the molecular mechanisms for coping with different low-temperature stress conditions in rapeseed. In this study, we investigated 47,328 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of two early-maturing rapeseed varieties with different cold tolerance treated with cold shock at chilling (4°) and freezing (−4°) temperatures, as well as chilling and freezing stress following cold acclimation or control conditions. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis indicated that two conserved (the primary metabolism and plant hormone signal transduction) and two novel (plant-pathogen interaction pathway and circadian rhythms pathway) signaling pathways were significantly enriched with differentially-expressed transcripts. Our results provided a foundation for understanding the low-temperature stress response mechanisms of rapeseed. We also propose new ideas and candidate genes for genetic improvement of rapeseed tolerance to cold stresses.

The results of comparative study of current increment of vegetative sphere yearling and biennial of plants of a half-highbush blueberry Northland and Denise Blue at fertilizer application NPK-compound (N16P16K16) and of some microbial specimen – a liquid product of MaKloR in concentration of 10 and 50 % in test crop on recultivated cutover peatlands in article are resulted. It is positioned that tested agricultural methods have rendered the expressed promoting effect on formation of a current increment of vegetative sphere of plants of a blueberry. In the first year of fertilization the least efficacy is positioned for a variant with N16P16K16 which conceded to a drug of MaKloR in 1.1–1.5 times. Its productivity increased with concentration augmentation in 1.2–1.4 times, depending on a varietal accessory of plants and phylum of shoots. In the absence of varietal differences in degree of positive influence of microbial fertilizing of MaKloR on development of vegetative propagules, efficacy of its action, as well as N16P16K16, on development of generative propagules, in variety Denise Blue exceeded for kind Northland in 4.2–4.8 times.Positive influence of mineral and microbial fertilizing’s on a current increment of vegetative sphere of biennial plants of both variety of a blueberry essentially conceded to that annotinous, against conservation of its progressing magnification in process of strengthening of microbial fertilising of MaKloR. Thus productivity of action N16P16K16 on development of propagules in variety Northland, depending on their phylum, exceeded that microbial fertilising of MaKloR in 1.2–1.9 times, at variety Denise Blue – in 1.3–2.6 times. It is shown that against absence of the expressed varietal distinctions in degree of stimulating influence of fertilizings on development of vegetative shoots, efficacy of their action on development of generative shoots, unlike annual plants, at kind Denise Blue conceded that for kind Northland in 1.7–2.3 times.

Inflammation is a crucial self-protective response to tissue injury or infection. During the inflammatory process, many immune cells are involved, including macrophages. These different cells directly trigger immunological events such as the release of cytokines, chemokines and inflammatory mediators [1]. Nitric Oxide (NO•) is a potent inflammatory mediator in various organ systems and is also involved in vasodilation and nonspecific host defense [2]. However, prolonged inflammation is associated with many chronic diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases and cancers [3-6]. Free radicals including Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and Reactive Nitrogen Species (RNS) create a highly reactive state that can damage many biomolecules, leading to several chronic diseases such as diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis, inflammation and cancers [7, 8]. In defense, antioxidants counteract such harmful effects and prevent this pathogenesis. Importantly, there are many natural antioxidant extracts from plants that contain several kinds of powerful bioactive compounds that are known to exhibit antioxidant activity, such as phenolic acids, flavonoids, and tannins [9, 10]. Polygonum odoratum Lour is in the family Polygonaceae, generally known as Pakpaw in Thailand. It is a biennial plant and grows well in wet conditions [11]. The leaves are green and slender, similar to bamboo leaves. The stems are red, straight and about 30 - 35 cm tall. The plant has a strong coriander aroma and a hot spicy taste. It has been used for adding flavor and aroma to food and is also used to treat flatulence and help to relieve constipation in Thai traditional medicine. Many studies have reported on the bioactive compounds in an ethanolic leaf extract of this plant, confirming that it has high levels of phenolic compounds and exhibits strong antioxidant activity [12]. However, the bioactive compounds and biological activities in the different extraction solvents have not been investigated. This study aims to determine total phenolic and flavonoid contents, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, in leaf and stem extracts obtained from three different extraction methods.

The biomorphological diversity of riverside and aquatic herbaceous plants represented mainly by annual and biennial plants of vegetative origin, which replace perennial and biennial plants and annual, biennial, and winter monocarpics, has been studied. Depending on the season and moisture conditions, some species are represented by different basic biomorphs and phenobiomorphs. The modes of morphological evolution have been determined at the levels of individuals (abbreviations), shoots and their parts (abbreviations and the corresponding prolongations), and roots (prolongations). The role of the developmental features of monocarpic shoots in the habitat specificity of annual and biennial plants of vegetative origin has been described.

Carum carvi (Caraway) is a biennial plant (Family Apiaceae), native to western Asia, Europe and North Africa. It is reputed and extensively ayurvedic plant used for various therapeutic purposes. It contained a wide range of chemical constituents like essential oils, volatile oils, flavonoids, proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and trace elements. The previous studies showed that its chemical constituents exerted anti-diabetic, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, antiulcerogenic, antimicrobial, Insecticidal, diuretic, analgesic, renoprotective, molluscicidal, endocrine, anti-cholinesterases, Immunomodulatory properties. This review is a step to open insight for therapeutic efficacy of Carum carvi.

Turnip (Brassica rapa var. rapa L.) is an important crop species belonging to the Brassicaceae family. It is an annual or biennial plant with wide variation in size, shape and color. Its classification is based on morphological characteristics, leading to a division of the cultivated forms into three main subspecies: turnip, oilseed and leafy types. Thus, it plays a vital role in agriculture, and contributes to both national economies and human health. Molecular genetics and traditional breeding programs of B. rapa are essential to crop improvement. Analyses of genetic diversity using DNA-based markers and metabolite profiling across B. rapa reveals that they originate from Europe, Central Asia and North Africa, based on evidence of 2–5 distinct groups. Studies have detected comparable genetic diversity between and within various B. rapa accessions, including root, leafy vegetable and oilseed types. The efficiency of traditional breeding programs; simple recurrent selection, mass selection and selfing with selection on improving growth, yield and root quality of the Egyptian turnip cultivar Balady have been achieved. Generally, the phenotypic correlation coefficients values for the varied possible pairs among different agronomic traits evidenced that 19 are derived from a possible 91 relationships and seem significant and are required to realize the selection aims. Simple recurrent selection exhibited higher effect on improving turnip agronomic traits such as plant and root fresh weights, leaf number, root diameter and total yield, over either mass selection or selfing with selection methods. From a quality prospective, all selected populations exhibited decreased root firmness, expressed as reduction in root fibers, which enhance root quality. Therefore, the high-efficiency of a selection-breeding program resulted in improving turnip yield and quality.

During their first year of growth, overwintering biennial plants transport Suc through the phloem from photosynthetic source tissues to storage tissues. In their second year, they mobilize carbon from these storage tissues to fuel new growth and reproduction. However, both the mechanisms driving this shift and the link to reproductive growth remain unclear. During vegetative growth, biennial sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) maintains a steep Suc concentration gradient between the shoot (source) and the taproot (sink). To shift from vegetative to generative growth, they require a chilling phase known as vernalization. We studied sugar beet sink-source dynamics upon vernalization and showed that before flowering, the taproot underwent a reversal from a sink to a source of carbohydrates. This transition was induced by transcriptomic and functional reprogramming of sugar beet tissue, resulting in a reversal of flux direction in the phloem. In this transition, the vacuolar Suc importers and exporters TONOPLAST SUGAR TRANSPORTER2;1 and SUCROSE TRANSPORTER4 were oppositely regulated, leading to the mobilization of sugars from taproot storage vacuoles. Concomitant changes in the expression of floral regulator genes suggest that these processes are a prerequisite for bolting. Our data will help both to dissect the metabolic and developmental triggers for bolting and to identify potential targets for genome editing and breeding.

Grazing is one of the predominant human activities taking place today inside protected areas, with both direct and indirect effects on the vegetation community. We analyzed the effects of grazing intensity on grass composition during four grazing seasons containing 78 plant species belonging to eight plant functional groups, which include perennial tall grass (6 species), perennial short grass (6 species), shrubs (3 species), legumes (9 species), Liliaceae herb (8 species), annual/biennial plants (11 species), perennial short forbs (16 species) and perennial tall forbs (18 species). We estimated grazing intensity at four levels, control, light, moderate and heavy grazing intensity corresponding to 0.00, 0.23, 0.46 and 0.92 animal units ha&minus, 1, respectively. We found that each plant functional group showed a different response to grazing intensity. Perennial tall grasses that were dominated by high palatable mesophyte and mesoxerophyte grass showed a significant decrease with grazing intensity, while the medium palatable xerophyte and widespread grasses that were the predominant short perennial increases with grazing intensity. The perennial tall forbs that were dominated by the mesophyte grass also decreased, but the decrease was statistically insignificant. The influence of grazing density on species is also related to soil factors (soil nutrient, soil moisture and soil temperature and soil bulk density). Some functional groups such as tall fescue and Liliaceae herbs, remained stable&mdash, which may be related to the changes in the soil environment caused by grazing activities. The findings of this study could provide a standpoint for assessing the current grazing management scenarios and conducting timely adaptive practices to maintain the long-term ability of grassland systems to perform their ecological functions.

Carrot (Daucus carota L.) is a biennial plant requiring vernalization to induce flowering, but long days can promote its premature bolting and flowering. The basic genetic network controlling the flowering time has been constructed for carrot, but there is limited information on the molecular mechanisms underlying the photoperiodic flowering response. The published carrot genome could provide an effective tool for systematically retrieving the key integrator genes of GIGANTEA (GI), CONSTANS-LIKE (COL), FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT), and SUPPRESSOR OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CONSTANS 1 (SOC1) homologues in the photoperiod pathway. In this study, the bolting time of wild species “Songzi” (Ws) could be regulated by different photoperiods, but the orange cultivar “Amsterdam forcing” (Af) displayed no bolting phenomenon. According to the carrot genome and previous de novo transcriptome, 1 DcGI, 15 DcCOLs, 2 DcFTs, and 3 DcSOC1s were identified in the photoperiod pathway. The circadian rhythm peaks of DcGI, DcCOL2, DcCOL5a, and DcCOL13b could be delayed under long days (LDs). The peak value of DcCOL2 in Af (12.9) was significantly higher than that in Ws (6.8) under short day (SD) conditions, and was reduced under LD conditions (5.0). The peak values of DcCOL5a in Ws were constantly higher than those in Af under the photoperiod treatments. The expression levels of DcFT1 in Ws (463.0) were significantly upregulated under LD conditions compared with those in Af (1.4). These responses of DcCOL2, DcCOL5a, and DcFT1 might be related to the different bolting responses of Ws and Af. This study could provide valuable insights into understanding the key integrator genes in the carrot photoperiod pathway.

Cichorium intybus is a biennial plant species forming a taproot and a leaf rosette during the first year and which requires low temperature during vernalization to flower during the second year of its cycle. Heat stress, however, is known to induce premature flowering during the first year. The present work aims to compare the effect of heat treatment (38 °C during 3 days) and vernalization (4 °C during 6 weeks) on the phytohormonal profile and the expression of two chicory genes (CiFL1 and CiFT) homologous to the Arabidopsis flowering genes FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) and FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT). In Arabidopsis, FLC and FT code, respectively, for a repressor and an activator of flowering. Although CiFL1 was inhibited by vernalization, its expression was increased by heat treatment in both vernalized and non-vernalized seedlings while high temperature unexpectedly inhibited FT expression in vernalized seedlings. Vernalization induced a modification in the hormonal profile of C. intybus (cv. Melci) in a sense of a decrease in ethylene production, abscisic acid and total jasmonates content, while the level of salicylic and benzoic acids as well as polyamine spermidine increased. A limited effect on the gibberellins’ profile was observed. The subsequent impact of heat stress on phytohormone content was different in non-vernalized and vernalized seedlings, with a higher abscisic acid and jasmonates and a lower 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid concentration in the former than in the latter. These data are discussed in relation to the putative involvement of phytohormones in stress-induced flowering. It appears that heat stress implies different pathways than vernalization to hasten flowering process.

Biennial plants perceived seasonal stimuli through the photoperiods and vernalization pathways respectively to optimize developmental time. Photoperiods combining with vernalization modulate hormone homeostasis to promote plant normally growth. IAA and ABA play important roles in plant development. Although a series of IAA and ABA genes and their regulation mechanisms have been investigated and characterized extensively in model plants, these underlined mechanisms in Beta vulgaris L. especially under abiotic stress were not entirely clear. This study aimed at exploring IAA and ABA biosynthetic pathway genes and investigating their expression patterns and quantitating analysis hormone by UPLC-MS/MS (ultra performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry) in order to demonstrate the molecular mechanism of phytohormone in B. vulgaris. As the results showed BvNIT4 and BvIAA8 contributed to IAA accumulation under nonvernalization condition. Endogenous ABA accumulation in leaves was contributed coordinately by the expression of BvABA2 and BvNCED1 genes both in the vernalized and nonvernalized samples under long day conditions. Vernalization and photoperiods indeed disturb phytohormone genes expression patterns, which data were consistent with the previous studies. New insight was provided to further clarify the molecular mechanism of endogenous hormone in B. vulgaris.

The present study was conducted on characterization of morpho-anatomical, phytochemical, and bio-elemental analysis of root, stem, and leaf of Verbascum thapsus. Morphologically Verbascum is a biennial plant that flowers for a month and a half in mid- to late summer. Various organoleptic features of root, leaf, and stem were recorded. Anatomically the T. S of the root, stem, and leaf showed a typical dicot histological differentiation. Leaf possessed anomocytic stomata, crescent shape vascular bundles, and covered with long and stellate type trichomes while, stem contained collateral type of vascular bundles and a well-developed pith to store phytochemicals responsible for various pharmacological activities. The powder drug study through scanning electron microscopy revealed the presence of various types of tissues. Branched, tree like and stellate trichomes in root and leaf help in absorption and reduce loss of water. These anatomical features are responsible for the survival of the plant as biennial. Four macro elements (Na, K, Ca, and Mg) and seven microelements (Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Zn, and Cd) and their concentrations in ppm were also studied using Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy. Phytochemical screening of methanolic extract showed existence of various secondary metabolites, while mucilage and anthraquinones was not detected. The present study helps to understand the taxonomic identification of the plant based on morpho-anatomical features and throws the attention of the researchers to carry out the work for developing its various formulations, which can ultimately be beneficial for the human beings as well as animals.

Gibberellin (GA) is an important phytohormone and has been reported to promote flowering in annual and biennial plants, but may play an opposite role in woody perennial plants. In this study, the promoting or inhibiting effect of GA on floral initiation was investigated in Jatropha curcas L., a perennial woody plant, which has great potential as renewable energy plant due to the high oil content in the seed. We found that exogenous application of gibberellic acid (GA3) inhibited flowering, whereas GA biosynthesis inhibitors promoted flowering. The promotive effect of the GA biosynthesis inhibitor paclobutrazol on floral initiation could be diminished by GA3 treatment. The expression levels of GA biosynthesis genes Jatropha GA 3-oxidase 3 (JcGA3ox3) and the GA receptor genes, Jatropha GA-INSENSITIVE DWARF 1C (JcGID1C) were decreased, whereas a GA catabolism gene, Jatropha GA 2-oxidase 8 (JcGA2ox8), was elevated during floral transition. These results suggest that GA inhibits floral initiation in J. curcas.

A study was carried out in 2013-2014 on caraway (Carum carvi L.), which is a biennial plant grown alone or together with a spring crop. The aim of the study was an agrotechnical and economic assessment of technologies for intercropping of caraway with selected three species of spring crops. The study showed that the highest caraway fruit yields in the second year were obtained in the variant in which the species was grown together with field pea. The profitability of this variant was increased by area-based subsidies for legumes and reduced outlays for mineral fertilizers. The highest value for pea as a species intercropped with caraway was confirmed by economic indicators such as soil productivity, net farm income, and production profitability. The second most suitable crop for intercropping with caraway was dill. It has similar agrotechnical requirements as caraway, but has the disadvantage of a very late harvest time, which slows the development of the main crop and reduces the yield of caraway the following year. In this variant lower values were obtained for the economic indicators than in the case of caraway grown with pea. The least suitable species for intercropping with caraway proved to be white mustard, whose intensive growth and accompanying high demand for water, nutrients and light substantially limited the development and yield of caraway. Due to the relatively low caraway yield and high cost of mustard cultivation, this variant resulted in the lowest economic indicators.

The carrot (Daucus carota) is a biennial plant whose pivoting root plays a major role in feeding populations worldwide. Few studies have been carried out on the characterization of the agromorphological diversity of this species. Varieties were collected, in order to assess their agromorphological performances under the ecological conditions of Korhogo. The Amazonia, Pamela+, Bahia and Madona varieties were evaluated. The Amazonia variety, which is the most cultivated in the Korhogo region, was used as a control. The study was carried out using a completely randomized Fisher block system, comprising 4 treatments and 4 repetitions. The blocks were separated by a distance of 80 cm. In the same block, the elementary plots were spaced 50 cm apart. Each elementary plot consists of 6 seeding lines, spaced 25 cm, and comprising 72 plants. The measurements concerned some vegetative and agronomic characteristics. The results obtained showed that the Pamela+ variety, with a yield of 25 t/ha, was the most productive. It is also distinguished from other varieties by the length of the roots and the high number of leaves produced. The Bahia and Madona varieties showed similar characteristics and less efficient than those of the control (Amazonia). On the basis of the characteristics evaluated, the Pamela+ variety was the most efficient and adapted to the agroecological conditions of the Korhogo region. However, the evaluation of certain characteristics will confirm the results of this study.

Carrot is generally regarded as a biennial plant with an obligatory vernalization requirement. Early spring cultivation makes plants vulnerable to premature bolting, which results in a loss of commercial value. However, our knowledge of flowering time genes and flowering mechanisms in carrot remain limited. Bolting behavior of D. carota ssp. carota 'Songzi', a wild species sensitive to flower induction by vernalization and photoperiod, and orange cultivar 'Amsterdam forcing', and their offspring were investigated in different growing conditions. We performed RNA-seq to identify the flowering time genes, and digital gene expression (DGE) analysis to examine their expression levels. The circadian patterns of related genes were identified by qPCR. The results showed bolting behavior of carrot was influenced by low temperature, illumination intensity and photoperiod. A total of 45 flowering time-related unigenes were identified, which were classified into five categories including photoperiod, vernalization, autonomous and gibberellin pathway, and floral integrators. Homologs of LATE ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL (LHY) and CONSTANS-LIKE 2 (COL2) were more highly expressed under short day condition than under long day condition. Homologs of COL2, CONSTANS-LIKE 5 (COL5), SUPPRESSION OF OVEREXPRESSION OF CONSTANS 1 (SOC1), FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) and GIBBERELLIC ACID INSENSITIVE (GAI) were differentially expressed between 'Songzi' and 'Amsterdam forcing'. The homolog of COL2 (Dct43207) was repressed by light, but that of COL5 (Dct20940) was induced. A preliminary model of genetic network controlling flowering time was constructed by associating the results of DGE analysis with correlation coefficients between genes. This study provides useful information for further investigating the genetic mechanism of flowering in carrot.

Using the published literature and records, this study investigated the historical introduction, geographical distribution, and biological characteristics of 404 alien plants in 32 provinces (including municipalities) in China. The results showed that three fifths of the alien plants was introduced for intentional purposes, and the introduction of alien plants increased with time from 139 BC to the current time, especially during historical events that played an important part in the process of introduction. The geographical distribution of alien plant species tended to decrease from the south and the east to the north and the west. Annual average precipitation (Y = 7.51X + 7.05, R2 = 0.67) and temperature (Y = 0.07X + 41.54, R2 = 0.67) had a linear relationship with alien plant introduction throughout China. Furthermore, population density and economic conditions also affected and promoted plant invasions in China. The life forms were well adapted to regional precipitation and temperature, but different life forms of alien plants were not consistent with the distribution tendency based on the quantity of alien plants. There was a higher percentage of annual and biennial plants in the northern provinces (e.g. 66.7 and 15.7% in Inner Mongolia), whereas there were more perennial and woody plant species in the southern provinces (e.g. 37.0 and 21.2% in Hainan). Family characteristics could not accurately predict plant invasions; however, predictions based on genera were acceptable. In addition, the origin of alien plants can also predict the distribution and potential risk of invasions. Thus, our study investigated the factors affecting plant invasions in order to provide information on the prevention and control of alien plants.

During storage of sugar beet, respiration and rots consume sucrose and produce invert sugar. Diseases that occur in the field can affect the magnitude of these losses. This research examines the storage of roots with rhizomania (caused by Beet necrotic yellow vein virus) and the effectiveness of rhizomania-resistant hybrids in reducing postharvest losses. Roots of susceptible hybrids from sites with rhizomania had respiration rates 30 days after harvest (DAH) that ranged from 0.68 to 2.79 mg of CO2 kg–1 h–1 higher than roots of the resistant hybrids. This difference ranged from 2.60 to 13.88 mg of CO2 kg–1 h–1 120 DAH. Roots of resistant hybrids from sites with rhizomania had 18 kg more sucrose per ton than roots from susceptible hybrids 30 DAH, with this difference increasing to 55 kg Mg–1 120 DAH. The invert sugar concentration of susceptible hybrids from sites with rhizomania ranged from 8.38 to 287 g per 100 g of sucrose higher than that for resistant hybrids 120 DAH. In contrast, differences between susceptible and resistant hybrids in respiration rate, sucrose loss, and invert sugar concentration in the absence of rhizomania were relatively small. Storage losses due to rhizomania can be minimized by planting resistant hybrids and processing roots from fields with rhizomania soon after harvest.

It has been previously shown that shoot tips of in vitro plantlets of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L. clone SES1) can be cryopreserved using the encapsulation-dehydration technique (survival rate of 37% after freezing). This article reports the influence of abscisic acid (ABA) and cold acclimation on survival after cryopreservation. When ABA was added to the multiplication medium of the plants, the survival rate of shoot tips after cryopreservation was not increased (45%). After cold acclimation of the plants, their growth pattern differed (plants became apically dominant) and the survival rate of the shoot tips after cryopreservation clearly increased (70% survival and 50% plant regeneration after freezing). This improved protocol was successfully applied to three other clones.

We exploited the advantages of genomic in situ hybridization (GISH) to monitor the introgression process at the chromosome level using a simple and robust molecular marker in the interspecific breeding of bulb onion (Allium cepa L.) that is resistant to downy mildew. Downy mildew (Peronospora destructor [Berk.] Casp.) is the most destructive fungal disease for bulb onions. With the application of genomic in situ hybridization (GISH) and previously developed DMR1 marker, homozygous introgression lines that are resistant to downy mildew were successfully produced in a rather short breeding time. Considering that the bulb onion is a biennial plant, it took seven years from the F1 hybrid production to the creation of S2BC2 homozygous lines that are resistant to downy mildew. Using GISH, it was shown that three progeny plants of S2BC2 possessed an A. roylei homozygous fragment in the distal region of the long arm of chromosomes 3 in an A. cepa genetic background. Previously, it was hypothesized that a lethal gene(s) was linked to the downy mildew resistance gene. With the molecular cytogenetic approach, we physically mapped more precisely the lethal gene(s) using the homozygous introgression lines that differed in the size of the A. roylei fragments on chromosome 3.

Carrots are typically classified as annual or biennial, depending on their vernalization requirement for flowering, a trait that is genetically-conditioned. Wild carrots are predominantly annual, requiring less hours of cold temperatures for flower induction, whereas most cultivated carrots are biennial (i.e., they have higher cold temperature requirements). After vernalization, if followed by long days, floral stem elongation and flowering take place. Previous studies using F2 and BC1 families derived from crosses between an early and a late-flowering line revealed segregation ratios consistent with a monogenic trait, with annual habit being dominant over biennial. In this work, we studied inheritance and segregation of the vernalization requirement in carrot F2 populations derived from crosses involving carrots of different genetic backgrounds and geographical origins. Nine crosses between biennial and annual phenotypes were analyzed, for 2 years, by means of percentage of flowering plants (parental lines, F1 and F2 families were sown in the fall for adequate discrimination between annual and biennial plants). Based on the obtained segregation ratios, a genetic model for this trait was proposed. The results are consistent with a model of two genes (Vrn-A and Vrn-B) with three alleles controlling the vernalization requirement. Dominance of annuality was clear for both genes, with A1 allele having an epistatic effect over Vrn-B. Vrn-A and Vrn-B interact generating different vernalization requirement levels.

Root rots in sugar beet storage can lead to multimillion dollar losses because of reduced sucrose recovery. Thus, studies were conducted to establish additional fungicide treatments for sugar beet storage and a greater understanding of the fungi involved in the sugar beet storage rot complex in Idaho. A water control treatment and three fungicides (Mertect [product at 0.065 ml/kg of roots; 42.3% thiabendazole {vol/vol}], Propulse [product at 0.049 ml/kg of roots; 17.4% fluopyram and 17.4% prothioconazole {vol/vol}], and Stadium [product at 0.13 ml/kg of roots; 12.51% azoxystrobin, 12.51% fludioxonil, and 9.76% difenoconozole {vol/vol}]) were investigated for the ability to control fungal rots of sugar beet roots held up to 148 days in storage during the 2012 and 2013 storage seasons. At the end of September into October, roots were harvested weekly for 5 weeks from each of two sugar beet fields in Idaho, treated with the appropriate fungicide, and placed on top of a commercial indoor sugar beet storage pile until early February. Differences (P < 0.0001 to 0.0150) among fungicide treatments were evident. Propulse- and Stadium-treated roots had 84 to 100% less fungal growth versus the control roots, whereas fungal growth on Mertect-treated roots was not different from the control roots in 7 of 12 comparisons for roots harvested each of the first 3 weeks in both years of this study. The Propulse- and Stadium-treated roots also reduced (P < 0.0001 to 0.0146; based on weeks 1, 3, and 4 in 2012 and weeks 1, 3, 4, and 5 in 2013) sucrose loss by 14 to 46% versus the control roots, whereas roots treated with Mertect did not change sucrose loss compared with the control roots in 7 of 10 evaluations. The predominant fungi isolated from symptomatic roots were an Athelia-like sp., Botrytis cinerea, Penicillium spp., and Phoma betae. If Propulse and Stadium are labeled for use on sugar beet in storage, these fungicides should be considered for root rot control in commercial sugar beet storage and on roots held for vernalization for seed production of this biennial plant species.

Background Eustoma grandiflorum is a new floral crop for the international flowers market, moderately cold-tolerant annual or biennial plant. A large number of seedlings can be produced by seed propagation but the quality is not uniform due to variations in the flowering time, plant height, and the number of flowers. Propagation of Eustoma grandiflorum plant by tissue culture technique is relatively low. Inducing mutations is one of the powerful tools for breeding biotechnology. Laser mutagenesis is an easy and new tool. The goal of the present work was to investigate the influence of laser irradiation on in vitro growth, anatomy, flowering, chemicals composition, and gene mutagenesis. Results The most of morphological, floral parameters, total chlorophyll, carotenoids, and anthocyanin pigment contents in the flower recorded increment by most treatments of laser types. The highest survival percentage of acclimatized plants (95%) and highest values of number of branches and branches length (cm) were obtained from treated plantlets by 20 min of green laser, while most of highest floral parameters, anthocyanin pigment contents in flower, and anatomical structural parameters recorded increasing using 20 min of blue laser and 20, 25 min of green and red laser, respectively. Contrary, the lowest values of photosynthetic pigments and carotenoids were obtained from 20 min of green laser. Conclusions The current research concluded that laser irradiation has remarkable effect on plant morphology, flowering, chemical constituents, and gene mutagenesis.

Flavonoids are a primary bioactive component of Sophora flavescens, which is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine. Understanding flavonoid biosynthesis is of great importance for improving the production of active compounds. In this study, both the total flavonoid content and the contents of six main flavonoid (namely, genistin, trifolirhizin, maackiain, kushenol I, kurarinone, and nor-kurarinone) were significantly higher in triennial S. flavescens than in biennial plants, and the flavonoid content of lateral roots was higher than that of taproots. We attempted to generate exhaustive molecular information on the flavonoid secondary metabolite pathway and to increase the genomic resources for S. flavescens. De novo transcriptome data provided 643,251 unigenes, and 365,572 (56.83 %) were successfully annotated in five public protein databases. The gene expression profiles of taproots and lateral roots clustered with each other and were separated by the cultivation period; the other expression profiles were clustered according to tissue pattern. The differentially expressed unigenes (DEGs) in the lateral roots, taproots and stems between biennial and triennial S. flavescens were identified and subjected to functional annotation enrichment. A total of 92 unigenes encoding well-known enzymes involved in flavonoid biosynthesis were found to show differential expression between biennial and triennial S. flavescens. Furthermore, the comparative expression results of eight unigenes were validated by real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR). The most abundant transcription factors (TFs) that were differentially expressed in S. flavescens were those belonging to the bHLH-, NAC-, ERF- and MYB-related families, and these TFs were identified regardless of the tissue or cultivation period. Our study provides important resources of gene sequences and expression and insights into the molecular mechanism of flavonoid biosynthesis during S. flavescens cultivation.

Carrot ( Daucus carota L.) is a biennial plant that accumulates considerable amounts of carotenoid pigments in the storage root. To better understand the molecular mechanisms for carotenoid accumulation in developing storage roots, plastid terminal oxidase ( PTOX ) cDNA was isolated and selected for reverse-transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Present in photosynthetic species, PTOX is a plastid-located, nucleus encoded plastoquinone (PQ)-O 2 oxidoreductase (plastioquinol oxidase). The enzyme is known to play a role as a cofactor for phytoene desaturase, and consequently plays a key role in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway. A single PTOX gene was identified ( DcPTOX ) in carrot. DcPTOX encodes a putative protein with 366 amino acids that contains the typical structural features of PTOXs from higher plants. The expression of DcPTOX was analysed during the development of white, yellow, orange, red, and purple carrot roots, along with five genes known to be involved in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway, PSY2 , PDS , ZDS1 , LCYB1 , and LCYE. Expression analysis revealed the presence of DcPTOX transcripts in all cultivars, and an increase of transcripts during the time course of the experiment, with differential expression among cultivars in early stages of root growth. Our results demonstrated that DcPTOX showed a similar profile to that of other carotenoid biosynthetic genes with high correlation to all of them. The preponderant role of PSY in the biosynthesis of carotenoid pigments was also confirmed.

Biennial plants require exposure to the cold of winter to overcome a block to flowering in the spring. The molecular role of FRIGIDA, a key component of the system that establishes the cold requirement in Arabidopsis, is to assemble a protein super-complex that promotes expression of a flowering repressor in the autumn.

Alliaria petiolata (garlic mustard) is a biennial plant that is invasive in woodland areas in the Midwestern and Northeastern United States. Garlic mustard has been shown in previous studies to inhibit fungal and microbial growth. It therefore seems plausible that garlic mustard may alter the metabolic function of the soil microbial community and may impact these communities early during its biennial life-cycle. To address whether either of these possibilities occur, garlic mustard and a common native woodland plant, Ageratina altissima (white snakeroot), were grown from seed in soil collected from Iowa woodland plots free of garlic mustard in a controlled environment. After three months of growth, the soil was analyzed with Biolog EcoPlates to determine if garlic mustard seedlings impacted the metabolic profile of the soil microbial community differently than white snakeroot. An ANOSIM determined that garlic mustard and white snakeroot treatments had different effects on metabolic profiles of the soil microbial communities (p = 0.001, R = 0.301), and that garlic mustard depressed the metabolic potential of the soil microbial community. Additionally, the extent to which garlic mustard inhibits native plant growth while also stimulating the growth of subsequent generations of garlic mustard was studied. The growth of white snakeroot and garlic mustard were compared when grown in soil collected from woodland garlic mustard infestations to plants grown in woodland soil lacking garlic mustard. Wilcoxon Signed-Rank tests indicate that white snakeroot growth was positively impacted by soil history, while garlic mustard was not (p = 0.05; p = 0.60, respectively). We conclude that garlic mustard has the potential to alter the function and possibly the composition of the soil microbial communities, while surprisingly increasing the growth of white snakeroot seedlings. Furthermore, it seems that garlic mustard can elicit effects during its first three months of growth, suggesting that this plant should be targeted for removal early during its biennial life-cycle. Future studies should examine these findings in the field.

The parsnip (Pastinaca sativa L.) is biennial plant native to Eurasia. During August and September 2016 typical phytoplasma yellows symptoms were observed on parsnip plants grown in an experimental field of 105m2, in South Backa, Vojvodina, Serbia. A phytoplasma-like disease, expressed as leaf and petiole redness and chlorosis was observed on approximately 5% of plants. Some plants had signs of complete foliage necrosis and at the harvest time in October were not suitable for human consumption. Total nucleic acid was extracted from leaf midveins collected from eight symptomatic and four asymptomatic plants. Phytoplasma infection was detected using a nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays with specific primer pair P1/P7 followed by F2nR2 for the amplification of phytoplasma 16S rRNA gene. Phytoplasmas were detected in all eight extracts from symptomatic as well as in two of four asymptomatic ones. Fragments amplified with F2nR2 primers were analyzed by restriction fragment length polymorphism with T...

While onion (Allium cepa L.) plants have significantly different morphologies in height, leaves, scape, and inflorescence, their bulbs differ in pungency, color, size, firmness, shape, tightness of bulb scales and neck. As in other vegetables, resistance to diseases, better quality, high yield, and uniformity are the major breeding achievements in onion. However, being a biennial plant with alternative seed-to-bulb and bulb-to-seed generations, the genetic progression of any desired trait in onion is relatively slow. This chapter reviews general breeding objectives, genetics and morphological markers found in seed, seedling, leaf, scape, bulb scale, and flower, genetics of some biotic and abiotic stresses, and cautions for marker-assisted selection to develop maintainer lines.

Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke, an important medicinal plant of the Himalayan region, being threatened needs immediate conservation strategies. Keeping this in view studies on the germination of seeds and sprouting of vegetative propagules has been undertaken for the first time. At the time of dispersal, F. jaeschkeana seeds are dormant and have under-developed embryos. The aims of the present work were to determine the requirements for germination and overcoming dormancy and to characterize the type of seed dormancy. The seeds of F. jaeschkeana have deep complex morpho-physiological dormancy. Present study revealed that final germination percentage, mean daily germination, seed vigour index, germination index, germination rate and germination value were highest (53.3 %, 0.88, 3.67, 0.13, 0.88 and 1.02, respectively) when 200 ppm kinetin and dry stratification (60 days) were applied together. The decline in MGT up to 36.18 days and highest percentage survival (87.9 ± 7.08) were also observed in the same treatment. This treatment is thus recommended for promoting the germination process of F. jaeschkeana seeds. Maximum seed germination (62.0 ± 11.54 %) at 1 in. depth was found in seeds presoaked in kinetin (100 ppm) for 24 h in media of sand:soil (2:1). In case of root tuber cuttings, 500 ppm gibberellic acid showed significantly high sprouting (89.70 ± 0.78 and 69.14 ± 0.82 %, respectively) and rooting percentage (78.78 ± 1.13 and 55.56 ± 0.95 %, respectively) in case of both perennial and biennial plants. Likewise minimum time taken for sprouting was also observed in the same treatment in case of both perennial (10.0 ± 1 days) and biennial plants (11.33 ± 2.3 days).

Three species, Zygophyllum coccineum L., Zygophyllum decumbens Delile and Zygophyllum simplex L., (Zygophyllaceae) were collected from three localities of Wadi Hagul in Egypt to study their adaptive responses to different environmental conditions. Plant analyses (degree of succulence, water content, total pigments, proline, antioxidant enzymes, total phenols, ascorbic acid, hydrogen peroxide and malondialdehyde) were estimated to study their roles in the adaptive responses of those plants under their natural drought conditions. Results have revealed that xerophytes can further be divided into two groups depending on their drought tolerance strategies. The first group includes perennial plants (Zygophyllum coccineum and Zygophyllum decembens) that able to tolerate and resurrect following desiccation into photosynthetically active states in a short period of time, the other is the dessication avoiding group; annual or biennial plant (Zygophyllum simplex), which possess an improved water-storing organ, efficient water conduction within the plant body and/or a combination of these features. Moreover, plants in this group (true xerophytes) are thought to have a unique system to cope with stress tolerance, since they are able to defend their photosynthetic apparatus and other fragile cellular components from composite stresses in the harsh environments in which they are found.

Sugarbeet apices were used as targets for particle bombardment with a microtargeting device. Before examining gene expression, particle penetration experiments were carried out. Transient GUS expression was detected within the first and second cell layers of the meristem. Dividing cells with GUS activity demonstrated that cells survived the bombardment procedure.

Studies were conducted on eight populations of scarlet gilia, Ipomopsis aggregata, across Colorado and in northern Arizona, to assess the fitness consequences of natural and simulated herbivory. To date, geographic studies have failed to incorporate treatment groups that included naturally browsed plants along with clipping treatments. The results presented here clearly demonstrate the importance of assessing, a priori, whether or not clipping experiments accurately reflect natural patterns of herbivory. Although because of the timing of the clip no evidence of overcompensation was found in any of the Colorado populations when ungulate herbivory was simulated in experimental clipping treatments, evidence for overcompensation was found in more than half the populations when plants that were naturally browsed and matched for size using root diameters were included early in the season. Matching plants for size based on root diameter late in the season would be problematic because root diameters significantly increased in size in all eight populations following high levels of ungulate herbivory and/or experimental clipping. Results from this study, and other recent studies on another biennial herb, the field gentian, clearly demonstrate that overcompensation is not only a real phenomenon but also is more widespread, both taxonomically and geographically, than previously thought.

Carrot is a biennial plant with a nutritionally healthy composition and has long been recognised as an important model for genetic and molecular studies. The present study aimed to identify suitable reference genes for the normalisation of gene expression in carrot roots and leaves at different developmental stages. Three different software tools were applied to detect the stability of expression of nine candidate reference genes. The results showed that the best reference genes differed across tissues and developmental stages. Actin (ACTIN) was recommended as the most stable gene in carrot roots and leaves at all five developmental stages examined. Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) appeared to be the least adequate gene, indicating that it should be avoided as a reference gene in carrot. Thus, we suggest ACTIN or different combinations of ACTIN, elongation factor 1α (EF-1α), eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4α (eIF-4α), tubulin β-7 (TUB), or polyubiquitin 10 (UBQ) for the normalisation of gene expression during carrot developmental processes. These results provide guidelines for future work on relative levels of gene expression in carrot using real-time reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR).

Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Nym. ex A.W. Hill which belongs to the family Apiaceae is a bright green plant, which is cultivated widely in the tropic, subtropic, and temperate regions. It is a biennial plant which is widely cultivated as an annual plant. Traditionally, roots of P. crispum has been used as a powerful diuretic, seeds have been used as antimicrobial, antiseptic, antispasmodic, and in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders, inflammation, halitosis, kidney stones, and amenorrhea. Leaves of P. crispum have been employed in the treatment of hemorrhoids, gastrointestinal disorders, diuretic, and as a food-flavoring agent in addition to its common usage as vegetable. P. crispum has been found to possess many pharmacological effects including, antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, analgesic, spasmolytic, immunosuppressant, and gastroprotective properties. Hence this section reviews the phytochemical constituents and pharmacological activities of P. crispum.

Japanese hedgeparsley is a biennial plant that invades roadsides, rights-of way, and forested areas in the midwestern United States. Interest in managing populations by mechanical or hand-clipping techniques exists, but no information is available on the appropriate timing to maximize mortality and prevent the production of viable seed. To assess that, we applied clipping treatments at five periods throughout the summer to three Japanese hedgeparsley populations in southern Wisconsin and measured the number and viability of seeds produced by each plant during the year of treatment and the survival of plants clipped. Japanese hedgeparsley plants began producing seed by mid-July, but production was not maximized until early August. Viable seeds were not produced until early or mid-August, coinciding with the presence of ripened brown fruit. Clipping at any timing resulted in > 95% mortality by the fall of the treatment year. All plants that resprouted were in the vegetative stage when clipped, and no plants survived the following year. Results indicate that clipping Japanese hedgeparsley plants when they are in a reproductive phase before fruit turns brown is an effective management strategy for this invasive plant.

Within plant populations, space-restricted gene movement, together with environmental heterogeneity, can result in a spatial variation in gene frequencies. In biennial plants, inter-annual flowering migrants can homogenize gene frequencies between consecutive cohorts. However, the actual impact of these migrants on spatial genetic variation remains unexplored. Here, we used 10 nuclear microsatellite and one plastid genetic marker to characterize the spatial genetic structure within two consecutive cohorts in a population of the biennial plant Erysimum mediohispanicum (Brassicaceae). We explored the maintenance of this structure between consecutive flowering cohorts at different levels of complexity, and investigated landscape effects on gene flow. We found that cohorts were not genetically differentiated and showed a spatial genetic structure defined by a negative genetic-spatial correlation at fine scale that varied in intensity with compass directions. This spatial genetic structure was maintained when comparing plants from different cohorts. Additionally, genotypes were consistently associated with environmental factors such as light availability and soil composition, but to a lesser extent compared with the spatial autocorrelation. We conclude that inter-annual migrants, in combination with limited seed dispersal and environmental heterogeneity, play a major role in shaping and maintaining the spatial genetic structure among cohorts in this biennial plant.

For many years, plants have been used in the traditional medicine of different cultures. The biennial plant of the family Asteraceae, Onopordum acanthium L., also known as Scotch thistle, is used in traditional medicine as an anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and cardiotonic agent. The plant is widespread in the world; it grows in Europe and Asia and was introduced to America and Australia. Stems and buds of the first-year plant are used in cooking as an analogue of artichoke in European cuisine. Additionally, inflorescences contain a complex of proteolytic enzymes “onopordosin„, which may be used as a milk-clotting agent in the dairy industry. The chemical composition of the aerial part and roots of O. acanthium is represented by flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, lignans, triterpenoids, sesquiterpene lactones, and sterols. The anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and cardiotonic properties of the plant have been confirmed by pharmacological experiments with extracts and individual compounds using in silico, in vitro, and in vivo methods. This work is a review of information on the chemical composition and pharmacological studies of O. acanthium as a promising medicinal plant.