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Introduction: Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a clean cooking fuel that emits less household air pollution (HAP) than polluting cooking fuels (e.g. charcoal, wood). While switching from polluting fuels to LPG can reduce HAP and improve health, the impact of 'stacking' (concurrent use of polluting fuels and LPG) on adverse health symptoms (e.g. headaches, eye irritation, cough) among female cooks is uncertain., Methods: Survey data from the CLEAN-Air(Africa) study was collected on cooking patterns and health symptoms over the last 12 months (cough, wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of breath, eye irritation, headaches) from approximately 400 female primary cooks in each of three peri‑urban communities in sub-Saharan Africa: Mbalmayo, Cameroon; Obuasi, Ghana; and Eldoret, Kenya. Random effects Poisson regression, adjusted for socioeconomic and health-related covariates, assessed the relationship between primary and secondary cooking fuel type and self-reported health symptoms., Results: Among 1,147 participants, 10 % ( n = 118) exclusively cooked with LPG, 45 % ( n = 509) stacked LPG and polluting fuels and 45 % ( n = 520) exclusively cooked with polluting fuels. Female cooks stacking LPG and polluting fuels had significantly higher odds of shortness of breath (OR 2.16, 95 %CI:1.04-4.48) compared with those exclusively using LPG. In two communities, headache prevalence was 30 % higher among women stacking LPG with polluting fuels (Mbalmayo:82 %; Eldoret:65 %) compared with those exclusively using LPG (Mbalmayo:53 %; Eldoret:33 %). Women stacking LPG and polluting fuels (OR 2.45, 95 %CI:1.29-4.67) had significantly higher odds of eye irritation than women cooking exclusively with LPG. Second-hand smoke exposure was significantly associated with higher odds of chest tightness (OR 1.92, 95 % CI:1.19-3.11), wheezing (OR 1.76, 95 % CI:1.06-2.91) and cough (OR 1.78, 95 %CI:1.13-2.80)., Conclusions: In peri‑urban sub-Saharan Africa, women exclusively cooking with LPG had lower odds of several health symptoms than those stacking LPG and polluting fuels. Promoting a complete transition to LPG in these communities may likely generate short-term health benefits for primary cooks., Competing Interests: The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare., (© 2024 The Author(s).)

Background: Relatively clean cooking fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) emit less fine particulate matter (PM 2·5 ) and carbon monoxide (CO) than polluting fuels (eg, wood, charcoal). Yet, some clean cooking interventions have not achieved substantial exposure reductions. This study evaluates determinants of between-community variability in exposures to household air pollution (HAP) across sub-Saharan Africa., Methods: In this measurement study, we recruited households cooking primarily with LPG or exclusively with wood or charcoal in peri-urban Cameroon, Ghana, and Kenya from previously surveyed households. In 2019-20, we conducted monitoring of 24 h PM 2·5 and CO kitchen concentrations (n=256) and female cook (n=248) and child (n=124) exposures. PM 2·5 measurements used gravimetric and light scattering methods. Stove use monitoring and surveys on cooking characteristics and ambient air pollution exposure (eg, walking time to main road) were also administered., Findings: The mean PM 2·5 kitchen concentration was five times higher among households cooking with charcoal than those using LPG in the Kenyan community (297 μg/m 3 , 95% CI 216-406, vs 61 μg/m 3 , 49-76), but only 4 μg/m 3 higher in the Ghanaian community (56 μg/m 3 , 45-70, vs 52 μg/m 3 , 40-68). The mean CO kitchen concentration in charcoal-using households was double the WHO guideline (6·11 parts per million [ppm]) in the Kenyan community (15·81 ppm, 95% CI 8·71-28·72), but below the guideline in the Ghanaian setting (1·77 ppm, 1·04-2·99). In all communities, mean PM 2·5 cook exposures only met the WHO interim-1 target (35 μg/m 3 ) among LPG users staying indoors and living more than 10 min walk from a road., Interpretation: Community-level variation in the relative difference in HAP exposures between LPG and polluting cooking fuel users in peri-urban sub-Saharan Africa might be attributed to differences in ambient air pollution levels. Thus, mitigation of indoor and outdoor PM 2·5 sources will probably be critical for obtaining significant exposure reductions in rapidly urbanising settings of sub-Saharan Africa., Funding: UK National Institute for Health and Care Research., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests We declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an Open Access article under the CC BY 4.0 license. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Over 900 million people in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) live in energy poverty, relying on cooking polluting fuels (e.g. wood, charcoal). The association between energy poverty and mental/physical health-related quality of life (HRQoL) among women in SSA, who are primarily tasked with cooking, is unknown., Methods: Females (n ​= ​1,150) from peri-urban Cameroon, Kenya and Ghana were surveyed on their household energy use and mental/physical health status using the standardized Short-Form 36 (SF-36) questionnaire. Random effects linear regression linked household energy factors to SF-36 mental (MCS) and physical component summary (PCS) scores. A binary outcome of 'likely depression' was derived based on participants' MCS score. Random effects Poisson regression with robust error variance assessed the relationship between household energy factors and odds of likely depression., Results: The prevalence of likely depression varied by a factor of four among communities (36%-Mbalmayo, Cameroon; 20%-Eldoret, Kenya; 9%-Obuasi, Ghana). In the Poisson model (coefficient of determination (R 2 ) ​= ​0.28), females sustaining 2 or more cooking-related burns during the previous year had 2.7 (95%CI:[1.8,4.1]) times the odds of likely depression as those not burned. Females cooking primarily with charcoal and wood had 1.6 times (95%CI:[0.9,2.7]) and 1.5 times (95%CI:[0.8,3.0]) the odds of likely depression, respectively, as those primarily using liquefied petroleum gas. Women without electricity access had 1.4 (95%CI:[1.1,1.9]) times the odds of likely depression as those with access. In the MCS model (R 2  ​= ​0.23), longer time spent cooking was associated with a lower average MCS score in a monotonically increasing manner. In the PCS model (R 2  ​= ​0.32), women injured during cooking fuel collection had significantly lower (-4.8 95%CI:[-8.1,-1.4]) PCS scores., Conclusion: The burden of energy poverty in peri-urban communities in SSA extends beyond physical conditions. Experiencing cooking-related burns, using polluting fuels for cooking or lighting and spending more time cooking are potential risk factors for lower mental HRQoL among women., Competing Interests: The authors have no competing interest to declare., (© 2022 The Authors.)

Access to clean energy for cooking is central to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 7. Latest predictions suggest that this goal will not be met by 2030, with further setbacks due to the COVID-19 pandemic. We investigated the impacts of COVID-19 restrictions on household cooking fuel, practices and dietary behaviours in a peri-urban community in Central Cameroon. Using surveys (n = 333) and qualitative semi-structured interviews (n = 12), we found negative financial impacts and high levels of food insecurity, with 83 % and 56 % of households reporting reduced income and insufficient food, respectively. Households reduced food intake and cooking frequency and relied more heavily on local sources (e.g., farmland) to feed their families. Changes in primary cooking fuel were less pronounced and fuel choice was inherently linked to cooking behaviours, with some households utilising LPG more often for simple tasks, such as reheating food. Local systems were key in sustaining food and fuel access and households demonstrated resilience by employing numerous mechanisms to overcome challenges. Our findings underline the vulnerability of households in maintaining sufficient food intake and sustaining clean cooking, highlighting how policy needs to take a nuanced approach considering food-energy dynamics and strengthening local systems to ensure access to clean energy is resistant to system shocks., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2022 The Authors.)