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Additional file 2. Four-parameter log-logistic model equation.

Additional file 3: Table S3. Hazard ratio value of multiple comparisons.

Additional file 1: More details on the methodology.

Parasitic diseases in domestic animals are a permanent obstacle for production, food safety and consumer health. The present work was conducted from september 2020 to april 2021 at the Dedougou abattoir to evaluate the prevalence of echinococcosis and the risk factors associated to this pathology in ruminants. Out of 14497 ruminants inspected, the prevalence of echinococcosis was 0.21%. The prevalence of echinococcosis in cattle, goats and sheep was 0.1%, 0.2% and 0.5% respectively, suggesting a significant effect of species on the transmission of the disease (P-value = 0.0203). Sheep were the most susceptible followed by goats. In addition to the animal species, the effect of animal’s age on the level of infestation was also significant, particularly for goats where the prevalence in animals under two years old (0.4%) was relatively higher (P-value=0.0001) than that recorded in animals over two years old (0.06%). Regarding the other risk factors studied, no significant impact was observed. Regarding condemnation, intestines (70.96%), livers (9.67%), and spleens (19.35%) were the organs affected by hydatid cysts and therefore seized. In view of the importance of ours results, control strategies must be put in place against this pathology in the commune in order to further reduce its impact on ruminants and to serve consumers with safe meat.

Swine cysticercosis is a zoonotic disease transmissible from pigs to humans. In Burkina Faso, few scientific studies have been performed on this pathology, especially in slaughterhouses which are the main production sites of meat destined to human consumption. This study was carried out in the Dedougou slaughterhouse on 3 350 pigs inspected and diagnosed by tongue and post-mortem examination to assess the prevalence of cysticercosis, its risk factors, and the financial losses incurred by butchers due to seizures operated by the inspectors. Results revealed no cysticercosis-positive pigs by the tongue technique, while the post-mortem inspection detected 25 cases, representing a prevalence of 0.75%, leading to an overall loss of XOF 1 118 425 for the butchers. The incriminating risk factors with a significant effect on disease transmission were sex (p-value = 0.0033) and age (p-value = 0.0183). Given these results, Dedougou's communal authorities and animal health officials should undertake an awareness campaign on the disease and strengthen surveillance measures against illegal slaughter.

Objectives: the overall objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of Plasmodium (P.) falciparum infection in the three foci of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) (Boffa, Dubreka and Forecariah) in coastal Guinea using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).Methodology and results: DNA from blood samples was extracted and amplified using pf1/2 primers. A total of 1001 individuals were included. The population was predominantly male (57.34 %) and female (42.66%) with a sex ratio of 1.34. The mean age of the study population was 34 ± 16.5 years. The overall molecular prevalence of P. falciparum infection was 17.78 % (178/1001). In the three HAT foci, the prevalences were 10.37 % (31/299) in Boffa, 20.12 % (99/492) in Dubreka and 22.86 % (48/210) in Forecariah. Women (71/178 or 39.89 %) were significantly less infected than men (107/178 or 60.11 %) (p-value = 0.0013).Conclusion and application of results: These results showed the positive PCR results in the three HAT foci. The diagnosis of malaria could be improved by using PCR to determine the true extent of the disease, but this test is higher cost comparing to classical methods. The malaria/HAT co-infection in this coastal area could be a factor of aggravation of the sleeping sickness, and should be taken into account by the HAT control programme in Guinea. Objectifs : l’objectif général de cette étude était de déterminer la prévalence de l’infection à Plasmodium (P.) falciparum dans les trois foyers de trypanosomiase humaine africaine (THA) (Boffa, Dubréka et Forécariah) en Guinée côtière en utilisant la réaction d’amplification en chaîne (PCR).Méthodologie et résultats : l’ADN des échantillons de sang a été extrait et amplifié en utilisant les amorces pf1/2. Au total, 1001 individus ont été inclus. La population était constituée essentiellement de 57,34 % d’hommes et de 42,66 % de femmes, soit un sexe ratio H/F de 1,34. L’âge moyen de la population d’étude était de 34 ans ± 16,5. La prévalence moléculaire globale de l’infection à P. falciparum était de 17,78 % (178/1001). Dans les trois foyers de THA, les prévalences ont été de 10,37 % (31/299) à Boffa, de 20,12 % (99/492) à Dubréka et de 22,86 % (48/210) à Forécariah. Les femmes (71/178 soit 39,89 %) étaient moins infectées que les hommes (107/178 soit 60,11 %) (p-value = 0,0013).Conclusion et application des résultats : Nos résultats ont montré des résultats positifs de la PCR dans les trois foyers de THA. Le diagnostic du paludisme pourrait être amélioré en utilisant la PCR pour déterminer l’étendue réelle de la maladie, mais ce test est plus coûteux que les méthodes classiques. La co-infection paludisme/THA dans cette zone côtière pourrait être un facteur d'aggravation de la maladie du sommeil, et devrait être prise en compte par le programme de lutte contre la THA en Guinée.

Targeting genes involved in sexual determinism for vector or pest control purpose, requires a better understanding of their polymorphism in natural populations in order to ensure a rapid spread of the construct. By using genomic data from An. gambiae s.l., we analyzed the genetic variation and the conservation score of the fru gene in 18 natural populations across Africa. A total of 34339 SNPs were identified including 3.11% non-synonymous segregating sites. Overall, the nucleotide diversity was low and the Tajima's D neutrality test was negative indicating an excess of low frequency SNPs in the fru gene. The allelic frequencies of the non-synonymous SNPs were low (freq < 0.26) except two SNPs identified at high frequencies (freq > 0.8) in the Zinc-finger A and B protein domains. The conservation score was variable throughout the fru gene with maximum values in the exonic compared to the intronic regions. These results showed a low genetic variation in overall the exonic regions especially the male sex-specific exon and the BTB-exon 1 of the fru gene. These findings are crucial for the development of a gene drive construct targeting the fru gene that can rapidly spread without encountering resistance in wild populations.

Beekeeping is a very old practice in Burkina Faso and has many advantages, including the availability of honey resources, of endogenous knowledge and support from public policies. However, it faces challenges, including health problems, which are poorly documented. This cross-sectional study was conducted between March and May 2019 in the Central and Central-west regions of Burkina Faso to determine the prevalence and risk factors of wax moth in bee colonies. A total of 200 modern hives were visited of which 106 were colonized or previously colonized. Methods of observation and inspection of the hives were used to search for witnesses of the wax moth infestation: eggs, larvae, pupae cocoons, woven silk cloth, gallery in wax or adult butterflies. A pre-tested questionnaire was used to collect information on beekeepers and apiaries characteristics. An inspection sheet was used to record observations made during the inspection of the hives. The results revealed that the average size was 18 hives by apiary. Hives used were Kenyan, Dadant, and rectangular frame hives with a colonization rate of 53%. The overall prevalence of wax moth was 23.6% [15.5-31.7%]. Other predators/pests were observed in 43.4% of the hives, the main ones being beetles (25.5%) and ants (17%). The analysis of the radio adjusted odds ratio showed the absence of risk factors among the modalities of the studied variables. In view of the results of this pilot study, more extensive studies could be carried out to have a better understanding of the epidemiology of the infestation and its possible impact that it can have on honey production.

Additional file 1: Fig. 10. (a) Number of mosquitoes collected per trap versus house in VK3 and (b) in Soumousso over the study period.

The animal trypanosomiases of African origin are a rather typical example of a neglected tropical disease. They are caused by blood parasites of the Trypanosoma genus transmitted by haematophagous insects, cyclically by tsetse flies for Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax and T. brucei brucei, which cause nagana, mechanically by T. evansi, the agent of surra, and finally by T. equiperdum, adapted to sexual transmission, which causes dourine. Nagana affects 38 African countries in the sub-Saharan region with 55 million cattle at risk, not counting small ruminants. These diseases deteriorate the animal’s physical condition, leading to a sharp drop in productivity; in the most severe cases, and in the absence of treatment, the animal dies within a few weeks. The socio-economic impact is estimated at US$ 4.75 billion in annual losses, making these diseases one of the major obstacles to livestock development in Africa. The control of these diseases is hampered by the lack of vaccines, a handful of molecules for treatment against which parasites are increasingly developing resistance, and finally, molecular or serological diagnostics whose robustness needs to be greatly improved. Clinical signs are not specific, parasitological diagnosis is often not very sensitive, and molecular methods are not applicable in the field. Immunodiagnostic methods in the form of rapid diagnostic tests are the only ones suitable for the field, but the few existing tests are poorly available and lack specificity and/or sensitivity. Here we address the advantages and limitations of current diagnostic methods and propose new ways of improving them for better disease control., Les trypanosomiases animales d’origine africaine représentent typiquement une maladie tropicale négligée. Elles sont causées par des parasites sanguicoles du genre Trypanosoma transmis par des insectes hématophages, de manière cyclique par les mouches tsé-tsé pour Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax et T. brucei brucei, qui causent la nagana, de manière mécanique pour T. evansi, agent de la surra, et enfin par transmission sexuelle pour T. equiperdum, qui cause la dourine. La nagana est présente dans 38 pays d’Afrique subsaharienne où elle peut affecter de nombreuses espèces animales, sauvages et domestiques. Près de 55 millions de bovins vivent sous risque trypanosomien, sans compter les petits ruminants. Ces maladies détériorent la condition physique de l’animal, induisant une forte baisse de productivité. Dans les cas les plus sévères, et en l’absence de traitement, la mort survient en quelques semaines. L’impact socio-économique est estimé à 4,75 milliards de dollars de pertes annuelles, ce qui fait de ces maladies l’un des obstacles majeurs au développement de l’élevage en Afrique. Le contrôle de ces maladies se heurte à l’absence de vaccin, à des traitements dont les molécules sont peu nombreuses et contre lesquelles se développent de plus en plus de résistances de la part des parasites, et enfin à un diagnostic, moléculaire ou sérologique, dont la robustesse demande à être grandement améliorée. Les signes cliniques ne sont pas spécifiques, le diagnostic parasitologique est souvent peu sensible, et les méthodes moléculaires ne sont pas applicables sur le terrain. Les méthodes d’immunodiagnostic sous forme de tests de diagnostic rapide sont les seules adaptées au terrain, mais les rares tests existants sont très peu accessibles (disponibilité, prix), et manquent de spécificité et/ou de sensibilité. Ici, nous traiterons des limites et des avantages comparatifs des méthodes actuelles de diagnostic et proposerons de nouvelles pistes d’amélioration de ces dernières pour un meilleur contrôle de la maladie.

Cette étude a eu pour objectif de déterminer les effets de l’incorporation de la farine des feuilles de niébé sur la productivité du lapin de « race bobo ». Pour ce faire, 12 lapines de race bobo, réparties de façon aléatoire en deux traitements, témoin et ration V ont subi une saillie groupée. Leurs 40 lapereaux âgés de 35 jours ont été répartis en 4 lots de 5 lapereaux chacun entre témoin et ration V. Le témoin recevait une ration contenant le tourteau de coton. La ration V incorporait la farine des feuilles de niébé en remplacement d’une partie du tourteau de coton. L’étude s’est déroulée à Bobo-Dioulasso et a duré 6 mois. La ration V a légèrement amélioré la taille de la portée : 5,5 pour la ration V vs. 5,2 lapereaux pour le témoin. Le taux de mortalité pré-sevrage était 41,9 % vs 36,4 % et les poids vifs, avant sevrage, étaient de 149,3 vs 93,4g au 7e jour et de 339,4 vs 292,3g au 28e jour respectivement pour la ration V et le témoin. Après 12 semaines d’engraissement, les valeurs moyennes de la ration V par rapport à celles du témoin étaient de 66,8 vs 58,2 g pour l’ingestion moyenne, de 1914,2 vs 1753,9 g pour le poids vif, les IC étant de 4,2 vs 4,8. Aucune différence significative n’a été observée entre les moyennes des paramètres mesurés. En conclusion, la farine des feuilles de niébé pourrait se substituer partiellement au tourteau de coton dans l’alimentation du lapin.Mots-clés: Lapin « race bobo », la farine de feuilles de niébé, productivité, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina FasoEnglish Title: Effects of the incorporation of cowpea leafs meal "Vigna unguilculata" on the productivity of rabbits of "bobo breed"Englis AbstractThis study aimed to determine the effects of the incorporation of cowpea leafs meal on the productivity of rabbits of bobo breed. To achieve this objective, 12 female rabbits Bobo breed, randomly shared into two treatments, control and V ration, were undergone a grouped copulation. To 35 days old, their 40 progenies were shared into 4 batches of 5 rabbits each, between control and V ration. The control received a ration containing the cotton cake. The V ration incorporated cowpea leafs meal to replace some of the cotton cake. The study lasted 6 months. The V ration slightly improved the size of the litter: 5.5 for V ration vs 5.2 rabbits for the control. The pre-weaning mortality rate was 41.9% vs 36.4% and the live weight, before weaning, was 149.3 vs 93.4g at the 7th day and 339.4 vs 292.3g at the 28th day respectively for the V ration and the control. After 12 weeks of fattening, the average values of the V ration compared to those of the control were 66.8 vs 58.2g for the average ingestion, 1914.2 vs 1753.9g for the live weight, the indices of consumption being 4.2 vs 4.8. No significant difference was observed between the averages of the measured parameters. In conclusion, cowpea leafs meal may partially replace cotton cake in the rabbit diet.Keywords: Rabbit of "bobo breed", cowpea leaf meal, productivity, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso

Infection by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense is characterized by a wide array of clinical outcomes, ranging from asymptomatic to acute disease and even spontaneous cure. In this study, we investigated the association between macrophage migrating inhibitory factor (MIF), an important pro-inflammatory cytokine that plays a central role in both innate and acquired immunity, and disease outcome during T. b. gambiense infection. A comparative expression analysis of patients, individuals with latent infection and controls found that MIF had significantly higher expression in patients (n = 141; 1.25 ± 0.07; p

International audience; In Burkina Faso, rural livestock farmers in arid and semi-arid areas rely heavily on woody plant resources such as Acacia nilotica and Acacia raddiana to satisfy the needs of small ruminant rearing. The assessment of the availability and the use of these two species are therefore essential to better manage them sustainably for their preservation. The survey carried out in the area showed that the questioned farmers exploited the leaves and pods of the two Acacia for the needs of the ruminants. 100% of the farmers exploit A. raddiana only for the feeding of small ruminants. However, A. nilotica was exploited for animal feed and health. The most commonly reported treatments are Foot and Mouth Disease (98.7%) followed by diarrhea (73.7%) and foot wounds (51.2%). In order to compare the results of the survey, a botanical inventory was carried out in the area and the results showed that A. raddiana is more available compared to A. nilotica. Also, other local species such as Faidherbia albida, Acacia senegal, Balanites aegyptiaca and Acacia siberiana are also exploited for the needs of small ruminant rearing in the study area. The most important constraints were excessive cutting, drought and overexploitation that negatively impact their survival. Data on these constraints provide the basis for a campaign to raise awareness among herders' communities to preserve these plants to sustainably improve the productivity of small ruminants and consequently farmer’s income.

Le pédiluve acaricide-insecticide est une nouvelle méthode de lutte intégrée contre les vecteurs en zone subhumide Ouest-Africaine : son efficacité a été validée par de nombreuses études en situations expérimentales et réelles. Cette invention sanitaire d'origine exogène proposée par la recherche, a été co-construite avec des groupes d'éleveurs il y a dix ans et a ensuite diffusé. Vingt-deux pédiluves et soixante douze éleveurs ont été étudiés. A partir de 97 variables concernant les modalités de mise en oeuvre, la sociologie, les aspects organisationnels, le système d'élevage, l'appréciation de l'outil et les connaissances des éleveurs, 32 variables explicatives ont été réparties en deux lots (" pratiques et perceptions zootechniques " et " connaissances du système épidémiologique ") suite aux analyses préliminaires et sept variables ont été choisies comme indicateurs d'adoption. Les lots de variables ont été soumis à des analyses multivariées permettant de caractériser trois groupes d'éleveurs, dont l'adoption a été évaluée. Le premier groupe est constitué par les éleveurs modernes de Ouagadougou qui ont bien adopté la méthode. Les éleveurs plus traditionnels de Bobo-Dioulasso sont séparés en deux groupes dont un n'a pas du tout adopté le pédiluve contrairement au second. Les dix variables discriminant principalement ces groupes sont analysées. Elles ont trait au système d'élevage, aux modalités de mise en oeuvre de la méthode et à l'appréciation de l'outil. La discussion porte sur l'influence relative des connaissances des éleveurs et des pratiques d'élevage sur l'adoption. L'importance des modalités de mise en place ainsi que des caractéristiques du système de production est présentée. Enfin, l'appréciation du risque par les éleveurs est discutée à la lumière des critères d'adoptabilité de Mendras et Forsé qui révèlent les variations de perceptions individuelles des bénéfices et risques et le rôle essentiel du réseau sociotechnique.