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1. The localisation and distribution of cytochrome P-450 in human tissues has been studied by immunocytochemistry using a monoclonal antibody to a major form of human hepatic cytochrome P-450, P-450hA7, which is closely related to cytochromes P-450 HLp and P-450NF. 2. Strong immunoreactivity was identified in hepatocytes, columnar absorptive epithelial cells of the small intestine, polymorphonuclear leucocytes and their precursors in the bone marrow, and in mast cells. 3. Weak immunoreactivity was present in the proximal tubules of the kidney, pancreatic acini, gall bladder epithelium, squamous epithelium and sebaceous glands of the skin, interstitial cells of the testis and luteal cells of the ovary. 4. Immunoreactivity could not be demonstrated in the adrenal gland, placenta, colonic epithelium and alveolar type II cells and Clara cells of the lung. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In most states of Australia, local governments (councils) are responsible for the enforcement of legislation relating to domestic cats. Traditional methods used for cat management based on trap-adopt or euthanize programs have been ineffective, with cat-related calls and cat impoundments continuing to increase, resulting in many healthy cats being euthanized. This has detrimental effects on the mental health of animal management officers, staff in shelters and council facilities, and cat caregivers. The city of Banyule, Victoria, implemented a free cat sterilization, microchipping, and registration (licensing) program in 2013/14. Initially, it was targeted at three low-socioeconomic suburbs with the highest cat-related calls and intake, and was microtargeted at call locations. An average of 4.1 cats/1000 residents per year were sterilized over eight years. The program included stray cats being fed by caregivers, provided they took ownership. The program was later expanded city-wide. Over eight years, city-wide cat intake decreased by 66%, euthanasia by 82%, and cats reclaimed by owners increased from 6% of intake (2012/13) to 16% (2020/21). Cat-related calls decreased in the target area by 51%, and city-wide by 36%. The council realized cost savings of AU $440,660 associated with reduced costs for cat-related calls to council (AU $137,170) and charges from the contracted welfare agency (AU $303,490), for an outlay of AU $77,490 for sterilization costs. Instead of the traditional management of urban cats, proactive management based on targeted sterilization should be utilized by government and animal welfare agencies in Australia and internationally. These types of programs are effective at reducing cat intake and euthanasia and are cost-effective.

Cystic echinococcosis is caused by the zoonotic tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus. There has been ongoing controversy over whether it causes weight loss in cattle. Recently implemented recording of comorbidities at processors has provided opportunity to investigate this effect. Using prevalence-based observational data from 1,648,049 adult cattle processed in seven states and territories in Australia (2019-2022), we explored associations between carcase weight, hydatid cysts, comorbidities, sex, age, and region. Linear mixed-effect regression models estimated the effect of cystic echinococcosis on carcase weight, guided by directed acyclic graphs to reduce bias. The highest, previously unreported, prevalence was in the southeast Queensland region. The estimated effect of cystic echinococcosis cysts on carcase weight ranged from a gain of 0.32 kg/carcase (standard error [se] 0.58 kg; two-tooth 2022) to a loss of -5.45 kg/carcase (se 0.63 kg; six-tooth 2019) with most point estimates (11/16) between 0 and -2.5 kg across all cattle grouped by year and dentition. This effect size would be practically undetectable in live cattle which is an important finding; cattle producers are unlikely to observe increased productivity through weight gain from cystic echinococcosis prevention in cattle, and awareness to strengthen prevention in domestic dogs around cattle properties to reduce human risk remains a public health focus., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Julia Creek dunnarts are an endangered species of carnivorous marsupials and the focus of multiple conservation strategies involving significant resources such as captive breeding programs. Despite the relevance for conservation, no study to date has focused on evaluating geriatric diseases in dunnarts. This study describes the pathology findings in a group of one wild and thirty-five captive-born, mostly geriatric Julia Creek dunnarts that failed to produce offspring over multiple breeding periods. A total of 20 females and 16 males were submitted for a postmortem examination, with ages ranging from 9 to 42 and 12 to 42 months for females and males, respectively. Of these, 10 had unremarkable findings. The most common condition in females was cystic glandular hyperplasia (n = 8), typical of hormonal dysregulation profiles in senescence, particularly hyperestrogenism. Rarely, cutaneous disease represented by unidentified dermal round cell infiltrates was observed in females (n = 2). Primary reproductive hormonal dysregulation was also suspected in males diagnosed with testicular degeneration, aspermatogenesis and/or atrophy (n = 3). Cutaneous round cell infiltrates, possibly compatible with epitheliotropic lymphomas, were seen in males (n = 3), and 2/3 affected males also had concurrent testicular degeneration or atrophy, indicating male sex could be a predictor for lymphoid neoplasia in aged dunnarts, especially in individuals with concurrent testosterone-luteinizing hormone dysregulation as it occurs in gonadectomized animals. The role of an underlying viral etiology is also explored. This study is the first to describe major spontaneous diseases in endangered aged Julia Creek dunnarts, providing an important understanding of senescence and geriatric diseases within a conservation context.

The rapid emergence of antimicrobial resistance is a global concern, and high levels of resistance have been detected in chicken populations worldwide. The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. isolated from healthy chickens in Timor-Leste. Through a cross-sectional study, cloacal swabs and boot swabs were collected from 25 live bird markets and two layer farms respectively. E. coli and Salmonella spp. from these samples were tested for susceptibility to six antimicrobials using a disk diffusion test, and a subset was tested for susceptibility to 27 antimicrobials using broth-based microdilution. E. coli and Salmonella spp. isolates showed the highest resistance towards either tetracycline or ampicillin on the disk diffusion test. E. coli from layer farms (odds ratio:5.2; 95%CI 2.0-13.1) and broilers (odds ratio:18.1; 95%CI 5.3-61.2) were more likely to be multi-drug resistant than those from local chickens. Based on the broth-based microdilution test, resistance to antimicrobials in the Timor-Leste Antimicrobial Guidelines for humans were low, except for resistance to ciprofloxacin in Salmonella spp. (47.1%). Colistin resistance in E. coli was 6.6%. Although this study shows that antimicrobial resistance in chickens was generally low in Timor-Leste, there should be ongoing monitoring in commercial chickens as industry growth might be accompanied with increased antimicrobial use.

Animal health and agricultural productivity in low- and middle-income countries have been the focus of research for development (R4D) projects for decades, with varying levels of success when considering the long-term sustainability of interventions. Many of these projects have been funded, designed and implemented by researchers from high income countries, and therefore risk neglecting the cultural nuances and complex country histories that can influence their success. This opinion piece suggests three broad recommendations: (1) implementing culturally congruent practices to improve disease control and prevention practices at the village level; (2) promoting public-private partnerships to improve control of transboundary animal diseases; and (3) improving national animal health and veterinary services and their governance to improve disease surveillance, control and prevention. Development researchers need to consider implementing these approaches in future projects to improve the suitability and sustainability of interventions and acknowledging the current technical capacity of host countries. Foreign donor organisations need to ensure their funding guidelines and reporting requirements allow for these recommendations to be adequately implemented., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Liver disease in beef cattle has a significant global economic impact on feedlot and abattoir industries due to reduced animal performance, carcase yield, and carcase quality. This study aimed to create a post-mortem data collection tool which could be deployed at chain speed on an abattoir floor, as well as to evaluate pathological findings in both normal and condemned livers from an Australian beef cattle population. The first 1006 livers were used to formulate a user-friendly, high-throughput liver grading tool for use in an abattoir setting and to evaluate the histological features of common liver abnormalities. Subsequently, over 11,000 livers from a Southeast Queensland abattoir were analyzed. The most observed defects in condemned livers were liver abscessation, fibrosis, adhesions, and liver fluke, with histological features similar to previous reports. Bacterial culture was performed in 29 cases of liver abscessation, revealing a different balance of flora to that reported internationally. This study has developed an easy to use, efficient data collection tool that enables rapid, highly detailed assessment of large numbers of beef cattle livers at slaughter. This tool will allow thorough investigation into the effect of liver disease on beef production, in both industry and research contexts., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results., (Copyright © 2023. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Introduction: Antibiotic resistance is a global health threat, and there is growing concern on the inappropriate use of antibiotics in the livestock sector especially in low and middle income countries. The purpose of the study was to understand the knowledge, attitudes and practices on antibiotic use and antibiotic resistance of government animal health workers in Timor-Leste., Method: A cross-sectional survey using a census approach was conducted between August 2021 and January 2022 focusing on government animal health workers involved in field work and access to antibiotics. Interviews were face-to-face in the local Tetun language. Descriptive and regression analysis informed by causal diagrams were performed., Result: The study found poor knowledge of antibiotics among participants, with only 8.0% (13/162) able to correctly answer questions on how antibiotics worked. Knowledge of antibiotic resistance was poor as only 29.0% (47/162) of participants had heard of antibiotic resistance and were able to accurately identify that it made antibiotics less effective. Knowledge of antibiotics and knowledge of antibiotic resistance were crudely associated with being a veterinary technician and having university education. Attitude scores were positively influenced by knowledge of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance. Antibiotics were most commonly used in pigs, cattle and buffalo, with oxytetracycline being the most commonly used antibiotics in pigs and chicken. However, most participants reported a lack in supply of this antibiotic (137/162, 78.4%) and other antibiotics. Empiric use of antibiotics in sick animals was common, and some participants used antibiotics for parasitic diseases. Less than a fifth of participants reported ever using human antibiotics, and use of antibiotics for growth promotion was uncommon., Conclusion: There is a need to develop Timor-Leste specific treatment guidelines, strengthen veterinary diagnostic support, improve antibiotic procurement, and develop training programs to address knowledge gaps and poor practices found in this study., Competing Interests: Author TB is a working director of Epivet Pty. Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Ting, Pereira, Alves, Vong da Silva, Dos Santos, Davis, Sidjabat, Yan, Francis, Bendita da Costa Jong and Barnes.)

The MilA ELISA has been identified as a highly effective diagnostic tool for the detection of Mycoplasma bovis specific antibodies and has been validated for serological use in previous studies. This study aimed to estimate the optimal cut-off and corresponding estimates of diagnostic sensitivity (DSe) and diagnostic specificity (DSp) of the MilA ELISA for testing bovine serum. Serum samples from 298 feedlot cattle from 14 feedlots across four Australian states were tested on entry into the feedlot and approximately 42 days later. The paired serum samples were tested with the MilA ELISA, BIO K302 (Bio-X Diagnostics, Belgium) and BIO K260 (Bio-X Diagnostics, Belgium). A cut-off of 135 AU was estimated to be optimal using Bayesian latent class analysis with three tests in multiple populations, accounting for conditional dependence between tests. At this cut-off, the DSe and DSp of the MilA ELISA were estimated to be 92.1 % (95 % highest probability density [HPD] interval: 87.4, 95.8) and 95.5 % (95 % HPD: 92.4, 97.8), respectively. The DSes of the BIO K260 and BIO K302 ELISAs were estimated to be 60.5 % (95 % HPD: 54.0, 66.9) and 44.6 % (95 % HPD: 38.7, 50.7), respectively. DSps were 95.6 % (95 % HPD: 92.9, 97.7) and 97.8 % (95 % HPD: 95.9, 99.0), respectively. Mycoplasma bovis seroprevalence was remarkably high at follow-up after 42 days on the feedlots. Overall, this study estimated a cut-off, DSe and DSp for the MilA ELISA with less dependence on prior information than previous analyses and demonstrated that the MilA ELISA has higher DSe than the BIO K260 and BIO K302 assays., (Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Canine splenic fibrohistiocytic nodules traditionally encompassed benign lymphoid hyperplasia, complex hyperplasia, and malignant fibrous histiocytoma. The latter has been recently re-classified into histiocytic sarcoma and stromal sarcoma. Reliable indicators of post-splenectomy survival and demographic factors predisposing to the four types of nodules are not completely understood. This study aims to estimate frequency, survival times, and identify risk factors of splenectomized dogs diagnosed with lymphoid hyperplasia, complex hyperplasia, histiocytic sarcoma, and stromal sarcoma using medical records containing histopathological diagnosis from the VetCompass Australia database (1989−2018), which collects demographic, and clinical information from veterinary clinics. Out of 693 dogs, 315 were diagnosed with fibrohistiocytic nodules, mostly lymphoid hyperplasia (169/693, 24.4%), followed by stromal sarcoma (59/693, 8.5%), complex hyperplasia (55/693, 7.9%), and histiocytic sarcoma (32/693, 4.6%). Dogs aged 8−10 years were more likely to be diagnosed with histiocytic or stromal sarcoma than lymphoid hyperplasia. Dogs diagnosed with lymphoid hyperplasia had a longer survival time than those with other diagnoses (median > 2 years). Dogs diagnosed with histiocytic sarcoma had longer survival times (median 349 days) than stromal sarcoma (median 166 days). Results suggest that knowledge of the type of splenic fibrohistiocytic nodule, patients’ age, and sex can be used to increase prognostic accuracy.

To compare arterial blood pressure (ABP) measured invasively (IBP) to ABP measured non-invasively (NIBP) via oscillometry in healthy anaesthetised and standing horses using the Bionet BM7Vet. Fourteen horses were anaesthetised for elective procedures (anaesthetised group) and 10 horses were enrolled for standing blood pressure manipulation (standing group). In both groups, IBP and NIBP-corrected to heart level were measured every 3 min using the Bionet BM7Vet. The overall mean difference (bias), standard deviation and limits of agreement (LOA) were calculated for paired IBP and NIBP systolic (SAP), mean (MAP) and diastolic (DAP) blood pressure measurements. In anaesthetised horses, the NIBP cuff was placed at either the proximal tail base or the metacarpus. Invasive MAP was used to retrospectively characterise measurements into hypotensive (≤70 mm Hg), normotensive (71-110 mm Hg) or hypertensive (≥111 mm Hg) subgroups. In standing horses, the NIBP cuff was placed at the tail base only and invasive MAP was manipulated to achieve hypertension (≥126 mm Hg) and hypotension (≤90 mm Hg) using phenylephrine and acepromazine, respectively. When measuring NIBP at the tail in anaesthetised horses, the Bionet BM7Vet failed on 8/185 occasions and overestimated SAP, MAP and DAP during hypotension and normotension. The biases (lower, upper LOA) for MAP were -11.4 (-33.3, 10.5) and -6.0 (-25.8, 13.8) mm Hg, respectively. Hypertension could not be evaluated. When measuring NIBP at the metacarpus in anaesthetised horses, the Bionet BM7Vet failed on 24/65 occasions and underestimated SAP, MAP and DAP when all ABP subgroups were combined. The bias (lower, upper LOA) for pooled MAP was 3.6 (-44.3, 51.6) mm Hg. When measuring NIBP at the tail in standing horses, the Bionet BM7Vet failed on 64/268 occasions and underestimated SAP, MAP and DAP during hypotension, normotension and hypertension. The biases (lower, upper LOA) for MAP were 16.3 (-10.5, 43.1), 16.6 (-19.5, 52.7) and 30.0 (-8.1, 68.0) mm Hg, respectively. Monitoring NIBP on the Bionet BM7Vet in anaesthetised horses overestimated ABP at the tail and underestimated ABP at the metacarpus. The device inaccurately detected hypotension and should be used cautiously. In standing horses, the Bionet BM7Vet underestimated ABP at the tail, especially during pharmacologically induced hypertension.

Antibiotic resistance is an emerging global health threat which is linked to the overuse and misuse of antibiotics. This study was conducted to understand the knowledge and practices of smallholder pig farmers on antibiotic use and resistance in Timor-Leste. A cross-sectional study using a structured face-to-face interview was conducted in three municipalities. The interview was piloted and implemented in the local Tetun language. This study found that knowledge of antibiotics was very poor as only 12.7% (95% CI: 6.3-23.9) of farmers reported knowing what antibiotics were, and of these only one was able to correctly explain how an antibiotic worked. None of the farmers knew about antibiotic resistance and were able to explain the concept correctly. After the definition of antibiotic was explained to the farmer, only 3.6% (95% CI: 0.8-14.9) reported that their pigs had ever received antibiotics, and the majority of farmers whose pigs had not received antibiotics reported the lack of access to veterinary services. When used, antibiotics were only used for treatment with no reported use for disease prevention or growth promotion. None of the commonly used antibiotics were critically important antimicrobials. Compliance with withdrawal periods was not routinely followed. There is a need to improve access to government veterinary services for farmers in Timor-Leste, while addressing identified knowledge gaps on antibiotics and promoting prudent use practices. The findings from this study serve as baseline information to inform future interventions., Competing Interests: TB is a working director of Epivet Pty. Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Ting, Pereira, Davis, Vong da Silva, Alves, Dos Santos, Toribio, Morais, da Costa Jong and Barnes.)

Musculoskeletal injuries remain a global problem for the Thoroughbred racing industry and there is conflicting evidence regarding the effect of age on the incidence of injuries. The ideal time to commence race training is strongly debated, with limited supporting literature. There is also conflicting evidence regarding the effect of high-speed exercise on musculoskeletal injuries. There is a strong interest in developing training and management strategies to reduce the frequency of injuries. The types of musculoskeletal injuries vary between 2-year-old and older horses, with dorsal metacarpal disease the most common injury in 2-year-old horses. It is likely that risk factors for injury in 2-year-old horses are different than those for older horses. It is also likely that the risk factors may vary between types of injury. This study aimed to determine the risk factors for musculoskeletal injuries and dorsal metacarpal disease. We report the findings of a large scale, prospective observational study of 2-year-old horses in Queensland, Australia. Data were collected weekly for 56-weeks, from 26 trainers, involving 535 2-year-old Thoroughbred racehorses, 1, 258 training preparations and 7, 512-weeks of exercise data. A causal approach was used to develop our statistical models, to build on the existing literature surrounding injury risk, by incorporating the previously established causal links into our analyses. Where previous data were not available, industry experts were consulted. Survival analyses were performed using Cox proportional hazards or Weibull regression models. Analysis of musculoskeletal injuries overall revealed the hazard was reduced with increased exposure to high-speed exercise [Hazard ratio (HR) 0.89, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) 0.84, 0.94, p < 0.001], increased number of training preparations (HR 0.58, 95% CI 0.50, 0.67, p < 0.001), increased rest before the training preparation (HR 0.89, 95% CI 0.83, 0.96, p = 0.003) and increased dam parity (HR 0.86, 95% CI 0.77, 0.97, p = 0.01). The hazard of injury was increased with increasing age that training commenced (HR 1.13, 95% CI 1.06, 1.19, p < 0.001). Analyses were then repeated with the outcome of interest dorsal metacarpal disease. Factors that were protective against dorsal metacarpal disease and musculoskeletal injuries overall included: increased total cumulative distance (HR 0.89, 95% CI 0.82, 0.97, p = 0.001) and total cumulative days exercised as a gallop (HR 0.96, 95% CI 0.92, 0.99, p = 0.03), the number of the training preparations (HR 0.43, 95% CI 0.30, 0.61, p < 0.001). The age that training commenced was harmful for both dorsal metacarpal disease (HR 1.17, 95% CI 1.07, 1.28, p < 0.001 and overall musculoskeletal injuries.). The use of non-ridden training modalities was protective for dorsal metacarpal disease (HR 0.89, 95% CI 0.81, 0.97, p = 0.008), but not musculoskeletal injuries overall. The male sex increased the hazard of DMD compared to females (HR 2.58, 95% CI 1.20, 5.56, p = 0.02), but not MSI overall. In summary, the hazard of musculoskeletal injury is greatest for 2-year-old horses that are born from uniparous mares, commence training at a later age, are in their first training preparation, have undertaken little high-speed exercise or had limited rest before their training preparation. The hazard of dorsal metacarpal disease is greatest for 2-year-old horses that are males, commence training at a later age, are in their first training preparation, have undertaken little high-speed exercise or had limited use of non-ridden training modalities. Close monitoring of these high-risk horses during their training program could substantially reduce the impact of MSI. Furthermore, an understanding of how training methodologies affect the hazard of MSI facilitates modification of training programs to mitigate the risk impact of injury. The strengths of this study include a large sample size, a well-defined study protocol and direct trainer interviews. The main limitation is the inherent susceptibility to survival bias., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Crawford, Finnane, Greer, Barnes, Phillips, Woldeyohannes, Bishop, Perkins and Ahern.)

Since 2007, African swine fever virus (ASFV) has spread to countries in Europe, Asia and Oceania and has caused devastating impacts on pigs and the pork industry. Transmission can be direct or indirect, and epidemiologic scenarios have been described in which spread occurs between free-living and domestic pigs. The purpose of this scoping review was to identify primary research in which authors made statements to support ASFV transmission between free-living and domestic pigs and assess the circumstances in which transmission events occurred. A search was conducted in five bibliographic databases and the grey literature. Two reviewers (from a team of ten) independently screened each record and charted data (demographics of the pig populations, their husbandry [domestic pigs] and habitat [free-living pigs], the spatial and temporal distribution of ASF, the occurrence or burden of ASF in the populations, and whether ticks were present in the geographic range of the pig populations). Data synthesis included statistics and a narrative summary. From 1,349 records screened, data were charted from 46 individual studies published from 1985 to 2020. Outbreak investigations revealed that whilst poor biosecurity of domestic pig operations was often reported, direct contact resulting in transmission between free-living and domestic pigs was rarely reported. Studies in which quantitative associations were made generally found that spread within populations was more important than spread between populations, although this was not always the case, particularly when domestic pigs were free-ranging. We conclude that there is limited evidence that transmission of ASFV between free-living and domestic pigs is an important feature of ASF epidemiology, especially in the current ASF epidemic in Europe and the Russian Federation. If ASFV elimination cannot be achieved in free-living pigs, compartmentalization of domestic pig populations from free-living populations via biosecurity strategies could be used to support trade of domestic pigs., (© 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH.)

Porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2), an important pig viral pathogen, can cause porcine circovirus-associated disease (PCVAD), resulting in economic losses associated with decreased growth and mortalities. The diagnosis of PCVAD is complex requiring clinical, pathological and virological approaches. This study assessed PCV2 infection using histopathology and immunohistochemistry (IHC) on tissue samples and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) on serum samples from 47 grower-finisher pigs allocated in three clinical groups in the Philippines. Typical PCV2 histopathological lesions were observed in mediastinal lymph nodes (MLN) of eight of 47 pigs. Lymphoid depletion was seen in all eight pigs and granulomatous inflammation in one of these pigs. Four of these eight pigs were PCV2 positive by both IHC and qPCR. IHC revealed PCV2 antigen in 8 pigs in at least one of the following tissues: MLN (5/8), spleen (3/8), tonsils (4/8) and lungs (5/8). PCV2 antigen was observed in 3/8 MLN with lymphoid depletion and in one MLN with depletion and granulomatous inflammation. The qPCR test showed that 33 sera had a non-detectable level, twelve had < 10 6 and two had > 10 6 PCV2 DNA copies/ml serum. One pig with lymphoid depletion had > 10 6 PCV2 DNA copies/ml serum, and another pig without MLN lesions also had > 10 6 PCV2 DNA copies/ml serum. These findings suggest that PCVAD is present in the Philippines and confirm the challenges of PCVAD diagnosis as different patterns of results were obtained from the different tests.

Monitoring veterinary antimicrobial use is part of the global strategy to tackle antimicrobial resistance. The purpose of this study was to quantify veterinary antimicrobials imported into Timor-Leste between 2016 and 2019 and describe the antimicrobial import profile of importers. Data were obtained from import applications received by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF) of Timor-Leste. Import quantities were analysed by antimicrobial class, importance for human medicine, recommended route of administration and type of importer. An average of 57.4 kg (s.d. 31.0 kg) and 0.55 mg/kg (s.d. 0.27 mg/kg) animal biomass of antimicrobials was imported per year. Tetracyclines (35.5%), penicillins (23.7%), and macrolides (15.9%) were the commonly imported antimicrobial classes. Antimicrobials imported for parenteral administration were most common (60.1%). MAF was the largest importer (52.4%). Most of the critically important antimicrobials for human medicine were imported by poultry farms for oral administration and use for growth promotion could not be ruled out. In conclusion, the use of antimicrobials in animals in Timor-Leste is very low, in keeping with its predominantly subsistence agriculture system. Farmer education, development of treatment guidelines, and strengthening of the veterinary service is important for addressing the potential future misuse of antimicrobials especially in the commercial poultry industry.

Q fever is a zoonotic disease caused by infection with Coxiella burnetii transmitted from animals including, but not limited to, cattle, sheep and goats. The infection in cattle is typically sub-clinical with some evidence suggesting associated reproductive loss. There is currently limited data on the true prevalence and distribution of coxiellosis in beef cattle across northern Australia. During this study, 2,012 sera samples from beef cattle managed on commercial farms located in Queensland and the Northern Territory were tested using an indirect immunofluorescent assay (IFA) for serological evidence of IgG antibodies against C. burnetii. Bayesian latent class models were used to estimate the true prevalence, adjusted for diagnostic test sensitivity and specificity and incorporating the hierarchical structure of the cattle within farms and regions. In this study, cattle in the Northern Territory had lower estimated true prevalence than cattle within most regions of Queensland with the exception of south-east Queensland. Results from this study have described the geographic distribution and estimated the true prevalence of antibodies to C. burnetii in a sample of extensively managed beef cattle located across the tropical grazing regions of northern Australia., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Glaesserella parasuis consists of 15 serovars with some of them highly virulent and some of them avirulent. As killed vaccines do not provide crossprotection across serovars, serotyping is of importance. Serotyping, previously done by gel diffusion, is now done by multiplex PCR followed by electrophoresis. Accurately differentiating 15 serovars by electrophoresis is problematic. To overcome this problem, a Luminex microbead-based multiplex assay was used to differentiate the serovars. The assay consisted of a multiplex PCR assay followed by hybridisation to microbeads which were then analysed on a Luminex machine. The newly developed assay was compared to the multiplex serotyping PCR and the gel diffusion/indirect haemagglutination assay (GD/IHA). The microbead-based assay worked very well for the 15 reference strains but when used on the 74 Australian field strains displayed some problems. The main problems were with the eight out of nine serovar 4 field isolates and the five serovar 7 and three serovar 14 field isolates. While the microbead-based assay could differentiate between the serovar 5 and 12 reference strains, which the serovar multiplex PCR could not, all four field isolates identified by GD/IHA as serovar 12 were identified as serovar 5 by the microbead-based assay. Serovar 4 has been noted to have a high diversity especially among strains from different countries. Our work clearly shows that the diversity of strains at both the national and the international level has to be taken into account when developing diagnostic assays., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Respiratory disease is one of the major causes of losses to the pig industry worldwide. The pig subsector is the largest component of the livestock sector in the Philippines. Using lung scoring, this study aimed to estimate the prevalence of thoracic lesions in slaughter-age pigs in two provinces in the Philippines (Batangas and Albay) and define classes for respiratory health of pigs characterised by different patterns of thoracic lesions. A total of 260 pigs from Batangas and 300 pigs from Albay from either commercial or backyard farm types were included in this cross-sectional study. Lungs were scored for cranio-ventral pneumonia (0-55) and pleurisy (0-3). Presence or absence of pericarditis as well as focal dorso-caudal pneumonia were recorded. Latent class analyses considering four indicator variables, and province and farm type as covariates were used to explore different patterns of thoracic lesions across the study populations. Using a threshold of ≥7, the prevalence of a high lung score was 51.9% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 42.3-61.4%) and 13.7% (95% CI: 8.1-22.2%) in Batangas and Albay, respectively. Similarly, the prevalence of a pleurisy score of ≥1 was 56.9% (95% CI: 37.5-74.4%) and 5.0% (95% CI: 2.9-8.4%), pericarditis 24.6% (95%CI: 10.1-48.6%) and 1.7% (95%CI: 0.3-6.7%) and focal dorso-caudal pneumonia lesions 7.7% (95% CI: 3.7-15.5%) and 0% (97.5% one-sided CI: 0-1.2%), respectively. Latent class analyses identified four classes based on lung score, pleurisy score and the presence/absence of pericarditis: "healthy", "mild respiratory disease", "moderate pneumonia", and "multi-lesion". The relative frequency of these classes differed with province and farm type. Most pigs from Albay were "healthy", whereas in Batangas most pigs from commercial farms were "multi-lesion" and those from backyard farms were in the "mild respiratory disease" class. This study has provided baseline data on thoracic lesions in slaughter-age pigs for the provinces of Batangas and Albay in the Philippines. Targeting farms and areas where "multi-lesion pigs" are most common and further research to identify risk factors for particular classes should maximize impact of future control measures. The latent class analysis approach used could be applied more widely and could add value to analysis of multi-morbidity data collected routinely as part of ongoing monitoring schemes., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Despite available control strategies, hydatid disease in beef cattle has been shown to have a wider geographic range and higher prevalence than previously recognised in Australia. The aim of the current study was to determine whether producer knowledge and attitudes are associated with farm management practices that could influence transmission among domestic dogs, wildlife, livestock and humans. Between June and August 2019, a cross-sectional study was conducted among beef producers throughout Australia (N = 62). Producers were asked to complete an online survey to obtain information on their knowledge about hydatid disease, their attitudes towards the disease and their farm management practices that could affect transmission. Descriptive statistics were conducted to investigate potential predictors for practices that might influence transmission of the parasite. A Bayesian network (BN) model was then constructed to evaluate the interrelationships between variables. The results show that most respondents (87 %; 54/62) had heard of hydatid disease. However, only 61 % of respondents knew how hydatid disease is transmitted (38/62) and only half knew how to prevent transmission (52 %; 32/62). Of respondents that knew that hydatid disease could affect humans (44/62), many did not think their family was at risk (46 %, 20/44) because they dewormed their dogs and prevented their dogs' access to offal. However, most respondents who owned dogs did not deworm their dogs frequently enough to prevent patency of Echinococcus granulosus infection (86 %; 49/57). Almost all respondents (94 %; 58/62) said they would take action if they found out their cattle were infected. BN analysis revealed that implementation of practices that could reduce the risk of hydatid disease transmission were associated with producers' knowledge and attitudes. In the model, practices were most influenced by attitudes (percentage change in variance = 42 %). All respondents in the "hydatid prevention" practices group were in the "good" knowledge group and the "less concerned" attitudes group. In comparison, most of the respondents in the "standard husbandry" practices group were in the "poor" knowledge group and the "more concerned" attitudes group. In summary, the results indicate that greater knowledge of hydatid disease among beef producers is associated with practices that reduce hydatid risk and attitudes of less concern about hydatid impact on properties. Therefore, increasing producer knowledge is warranted to encourage adoption and improvement of hydatid prevention practices and would be well received by beef producers., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To compare noninvasive blood pressure (NIBP) measurements with invasive blood pressure (IBP) measurements of arterial blood pressure (ABP) in anesthetized dogs as obtained with a veterinary-specific multiparameter monitor., Animals: 21 client-owned healthy female dogs anesthetized for routine ovariohysterectomy., Procedures: ABP measurements were obtained with a single veterinary-specific multiparameter monitor via a pneumatic cuff placed over the medial dorsal metatarsal artery (NIBP) and a transducer connected to a catheter placed in the contralateral artery (IBP). The 224 paired ABP measurements (complete data set) were categorized into 3 subsets-hypotension, normotension, and hypertension-on the basis of invasive measurements of mean arterial blood pressure (MAP). The NIBP and IBP measurements of systolic and diastolic arterial blood pressure (SAP and DAP, respectively) and MAP were compared., Results: NIBP measurements were frequently lower than IBP measurements. The greatest underestimation was for the hypertension subset of NIBP measurements, with biases for SAP of 15.7 mm Hg, DAP of 14.1 mm Hg, and MAP of 12.0 mm Hg. Considering the complete data set, precision was acceptable (SD of the differences between paired measurements ≤ 15 mm Hg for DAP [9.0 mm Hg] and MAP [12.1 mm Hg]); however, precision was not acceptable for SAP (SD, 18.6 mm Hg)., Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: NIBP measurements with the studied veterinary-specific multiparameter monitor generally agreed with IBP measurements during hypotensive and normotensive periods for anesthetized healthy female dogs undergoing routine ovariohysterectomy. However, inaccuracies, frequently underestimations, were observed during periods of hypertension, and therefore, NIBP measurements should be interpreted cautiously.

This Research Reflection provides an overview of three interrelated topics: (i) lameness in dairy cows, demonstrating the underpinning importance of the condition, (ii) dairy farmer detection, diagnosis and treatment of lameness and associated foot lesions as well as dairy farmer perceptions towards the condition and (iii) lameness detection technologies, and their potential application on farm to automate the detection of lameness in commercial dairy herds. The presented literature clearly demonstrates that lameness is a major health issue in dairy herds, compromising dairy cow welfare and productivity, and resulting in significant economic implications for dairy farmers. Despite this, dairy farmers fail to perceive lameness as a serious threat to their dairy business. This restricted perception of the importance of lameness may be a product of limited ability to detect lame cows. Many automated lameness detection technologies have been proposed to assist dairy farmers in managing their herds. However, limitations such as cost, performance and dairy farmer perception of the usefulness of these technologies, has lead to poor uptake. It can, therefore, be concluded that there is a need to more thoroughly evaluate the effectiveness of these technologies under on-farm conditions, potentially in the form of a demonstration farm network. This will allow generation of the necessary data required to show dairy farmers that these technologies are reliable and are economically rational for their dairy business.

Since September 2019, African Swine Fever has caused extensive mortalities to the pig population of Timor-Leste, where pigs are important for traditional ceremonies and for monetary income. At the time of the outbreak we were developing a sustainable model for smallholder pig raising in Timor-Leste. We added basic biosecurity measures at our nine trial sites and conducted public awareness meetings in trial sukus (villages). This approach was largely successful as, despite extensive pig mortalities in the areas, few pigs died at trial sites once measures had been adopted and trial pig mortalities appeared to be linked to social issues that could be reduced through improved public awareness. We believe this approach can cost-effectively reduce the risk of mortalities due to African Swine Fever in settings where smallholder pig raising is very basic and resources limited, but pigs are of great socio-economic importance., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2020 The Authors.)

The causal effect of an exposure on an outcome of interest in an observational study cannot be estimated directly if the confounding variables are not controlled. Many approaches are available for estimating the causal effect of an exposure. In this manuscript, we demonstrate the advantages associated with using inverse probability weighting (IPW) and doubly robust estimation of the odds ratio in terms of reduced bias. IPW approach can be used to adjust for confounding variables and provide unbiased estimates of the exposure's causal effect. For cluster-structured data, as is common in animal populations, inverse conditional probability weighting (ICPW) approach can provide a robust estimation of the causal effect. Doubly robust estimation can provide a robust method even when the specification of the model form is uncertain. In this paper, the usage of IPW, ICPW, and doubly robust approaches are illustrated with a subset of data with complete covariates from the Australian-based National Bovine Respiratory Disease Initiative as well as simulated data. We evaluate the causal effect of prior bovine viral diarrhea exposure on bovine respiratory disease in feedlot cattle. The results show that the IPW, ICPW and doubly robust approaches would provide a more accurate estimation of the exposure effect than the traditional outcome regression model, and doubly robust approaches are the most preferable overall., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Pork is the main meat produced and consumed in the Philippines. The majority of pigs are raised by smallholders who experience a range of constraints to their pig production. This study presents the findings of the first part of an overarching project that used an Ecohealth approach and aimed to improve the production and competitiveness of the smallholder pig system in an area of the Philippines. A participatory approach was embraced, combining conventional and participatory epidemiology methods followed by a stakeholder discussion. The first aim was to identify management and health-related constraints to pig production among smallholder famers in San Simon, Pampanga, Philippines. The second aim was for the project team and stakeholders to jointly prioritise activities for the immediate future to address these constraints. Key management and health-related constraints identified included inadequate water supply to pigs, particularly lactating and gestating sows, and a range of feeding-related issues. Diarrhoea was recognised as the disease syndrome of highest priority and limited record keeping meant that farmers were unable to assess the productivity and profitability of their pig farming enterprises. Actions jointly prioritised by stakeholders and the project team were: the appointment of a project coordinator within each barangay; conduct two sets of seminars, the first covering water and nutrition and the second piglet management and diarrhoea, to be delivered by technical experts but with farmer "trusted sources" also sharing their experiences; development of easily understandable leaflets and posters covering key technical information; promotion of nipple drinkers attached to five-gallon water containers and creep boxes for piglets, and conduct of a record keeping workshop with a small group of innovative farmers to develop a useful and usable tool for record keeping. The use of multiple approaches to data-gathering enabled triangulation of study findings. Without any one of these components the understanding of the pig production system would have been less complete and it is possible that the proposed actions would not have been as well-tailored to the needs of the farmers. The participatory approach, in particular the stakeholder discussion, provided the opportunity to embrace the "deciding together" and "acting together" stances of participation rather than the lower "information giving" stance, thereby giving stakeholders greater ownership of the future activities of the overarching project and beyond., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Bovine hydatid disease, characterised by fluid-filled hydatid cysts, is regularly found in the offal of beef cattle at slaughter. Organs found to be infected at slaughter are removed to preclude them from entering the human food chain. The organs are either downgraded to pet food or condemned. Previous studies have focussed on total economic losses, but have not calculated the cost of disease per animal, which would be useful information for producers when determining how best to manage hydatid disease. This study estimated the direct losses associated with hydatid disease in beef cattle slaughtered at an Australian beef abattoir both at the population (all cattle slaughtered) and individual animal level. Data on annual prevalence of hydatid disease in beef cattle were obtained from an Australian abattoir for the years 2011-2017. The direct losses resulting from the condemnation and downgrading of offal infected with hydatid cysts at the abattoir were estimated using data stratified by age, sex and feed-type. Official and literature-based sources of organ weight and price were used to estimate direct losses associated with hydatid disease in beef cattle slaughtered at the abattoir. Uncertainty and variability in input parameters were represented using uniform distributions and Monte Carlo sampling was used to model output parameter uncertainty. Out of 1,097,958 beef cattle slaughtered between January 2011 and December 2017, 97,832 (8.9%) were reported infected with hydatid disease. The median estimated direct loss to the abattoir for the duration of the study period was AU$655,560 (95% confidence interval [CI] AU$544,366-787,235). This equated to approximately AU$6.70 (95% CI AU$5.56-8.05) lost per infected animal. The annual median estimated direct losses due to hydatid disease at the abattoir were AU$93,651 (95% CI AU$77,767-112,462). Direct losses varied each year of the study and ranged from AU$38,683 in 2016 to AU$163,006 in 2014. This estimate of the direct losses associated with bovine hydatid disease most likely underestimates the true extent of the overall losses because indirect losses such as reduced carcass weights were not estimated in this study. Nevertheless, these estimates illustrate the negative economic impact of bovine hydatid disease and demonstrate that improved surveillance to enable control of hydatid disease should be considered both in Australia and globally. It would be worthwhile to estimate the losses in other beef abattoirs for the same time period to compare results, and to investigate the cost-benefit of control programs for bovine hydatid disease., Competing Interests: Declarations of Competing Interest None., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

A retrospective study was conducted on 1,178,329 cattle slaughtered at an eastern Australian abattoir between 2010 and 2018. The data were searched for records in which a diagnosis of hydatid disease was made by routine meat inspection and apparent prevalence was calculated. True prevalence of hydatid disease in any organ was then estimated using previously reported sensitivity and specificity for diagnosis of hepatic hydatid disease by routine meat inspection. Mixed effects logistic regression was conducted to assess putative associations between dentition (age), sex, and feed-type (grass- or grain-fed), and hydatid disease reported at slaughter, with origin (Property Identification Code [PIC] region) included as a random effect. Regression was also conducted on subsets stratified by dentition and feed-type to account for measurement bias resulting from differences in sensitivity and specificity between groups of cattle. Discrete-Poisson models (SaTScan, v.9.5) were used to detect spatio-temporal clustering of hydatid-positive cattle within PIC regions. The apparent prevalence of hydatid disease reported in any organ was 8.8% (n = 104,038; 95% confidence interval [CI] 8.8-8.9%). The liver, lungs, heart, spleen, and kidneys were reported infected with hydatid cysts. Of cattle reported infected with hydatid cysts, 75.6% had both the liver and lungs reported infected. True prevalence was estimated to be 33.0% (95% CI 24.4-44.4%). Significant interaction between dentition and feed-type was identified. Risk of reported hydatid disease was highest in both eight-tooth grass- and eight-tooth grain-fed cattle (OR 17.5, 95% CI 17.0-18.1, reference level [ref] zero-tooth; OR 4.8, 95% CI 4.4-5.2, ref zero-tooth, respectively). Sex was also significantly associated with reported cases of hydatid disease at slaughter, with the highest odds in females (two-tooth group, OR 1.2, 95% CI 1.1-1.2, ref male). Three spatio-temporal clusters of hydatid-positive regions were identified. The most likely cluster was located in north eastern New South Wales from June 2012 to September 2015 (log likelihood ratio 4774, P < 0.001). This study indicates a higher prevalence of hydatid disease than previously recognised and demonstrates that an effect of sex cannot be ruled out. The identification of clusters could indicate periods when hosts of Echinococcus were more abundant, or localised climatic events that facilitated transmission to cattle. Given the high prevalence, the financial impact of hydatid disease on the Australian beef industry and risk factors associated with variation in spatial distribution should be determined to target interventions., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The characteristics and risk factors associated with hepatic Echinococcus granulosus sensu stricto infection (hydatid disease) were investigated in beef cattle slaughtered at an abattoir in eastern Australia. Sampled cattle were sourced from all eastern states, predominantly from regions associated with the Great Dividing Range. Livers and corresponding demographic data were collected from 601 carcasses. Livers were examined for the number, size, viability, and fertility of hydatid cysts. Mixed effects logistic regression was used to evaluate associations of sex, feed-type (grass- or grain-fed), and dentition (age) on hydatid disease. Hydatid cysts were detected in all dentition groups. The most commonly sampled dentition group was zero-tooth cattle (less than 18 months). Twenty-nine percent of infected livers had only one cyst, and 48% of infected livers contained viable cysts. Thirty-seven percent of infected livers had cysts that were 3-10 mm in diameter. The size and number of cysts were positively correlated with age of the animal. Regression analysis showed that the odds of hydatid disease were highest in eight-tooth cattle (>42 months; OR 26.9; 95% CI 11.8-61.6; reference level [ref] zero-tooth). Being grass-fed was also significantly associated with the presence of hydatid disease (total effect; OR 3.0; 95% CI 1.7-5.5; ref grain-fed). Although there was no evidence of a total effect of sex across the study population, males of a given dentition group and feed-type (grass- or grain-fed) were more likely to be infected than respective females. Despite changes in Australian agriculture in the last 30 years, the burden (number, size, and viability of cysts) of hydatid disease in individual infected animals remains similar to previous Australian studies., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Foot lesions causing lameness in dairy cows have been demonstrated to adversely affect milk yield, reproductive performance and longevity, resulting in significant economic burden to individual dairy farmers and the dairy industry. Further, foot lesions compromise dairy cow welfare. Despite this knowledge, foot lesions remain a large problem in many dairy herds woldwide. Therefore, there is potential for dairy farmers to make changes to their current management practices of foot lesions. This study used the social-psychology framework, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), to explore dairy farmers' intentions to make improvements to their current management practices of foot lesions in their dairy cows and to identify the underlying behavioral, normative and control beliefs facilitating and constraining this behavior. In accordance with the theoretical framework, Australian dairy farmers were invited to participate in an online questionnaire which included questions regarding intentions, attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. Fifty-six dairy farmers completed the questionnaire. The overall intention of these dairy farmers to make improvements to their management practices of foot lesions in the next year was moderate. Dairy farmers believed improving their current management practices of foot lesions would improve animal welfare, increase milk production and was worth the cost involved (behavioral beliefs). They indicated that the opinions of consumers, staff, and animal welfare groups were important in their decision to make improvements (normative beliefs). Better equipment and facilities, improved knowledge and training, and a favorable cost-benefit ratio were perceived as factors that would enable dairy farmers to improve their management practices (control beliefs). While all of these beliefs may be considered as potential drivers to facilitate dairy farmers to change their management practices, the behavioral beliefs were identified as the priority beliefs that industry should target in the development of strategies to increase dairy farmer intentions to make improvements to their management practices of foot lesions., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

There is limited knowledge of the true prevalence and distribution of coxiellosis in dairy and beef cattle populations in Australia. For this to occur, apparent prevalence estimates need to be reliably adjusted, accounting for diagnostic sensitivity (DSe) and diagnostic specificity (DSp) of the test used. However, there are few tests available with known diagnostic specifications suitable to inform screening and surveillance activities in the Australian context. We initially modified and optimised a human indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) test for the detection of IgG antibodies against phase I and/or phase II Coxiella burnetii in bovine sera and determined an optimal screening dilution cut-off to be 1:160. Direct comparison of the modified IFA with the commercial IDEXX enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit (Q Fever Ab Test IDEXX Laboratories, United States of America) was performed by testing 458 serum samples from four distinct cattle populations across the east coast of Australia and New Zealand. Cross classified test results were then analysed using Bayesian latent class modelling, to validate the tests in the absence of a gold standard reference test. Results from this analysis indicate that the IFA, at a 1:160 serum dilution, has an estimated DSe of 73.6% (95% Credible Interval (CrI) 61.1, 85.9) and DSp of 98.2% (95% CrI 95.1, 99.7). The commercial IDEXX ELISA kit was found to have a higher DSe of 87.9% (95% CrI 73.9, 96.4) and similar DSp of 97.7% (95% CrI 93.2, 99.7). Evaluation of the diagnostic performance of the IFA and ELISA methods, specifically for use in cattle will enable more accurate interpretation of prevalence estimates of C. burnetii exposure to be reported for cattle in Australia and other countries., (Crown Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Hydatid disease, caused by Echinococcus granulosus, is a widespread, endemic disease of Australian livestock, wildlife, and occasionally, humans. In the Australian beef industry, the disease is believed to have a substantial economic impact. The reference standard test (gold standard) for detection of hepatic hydatid cysts is gross identification of cysts following cutting of livers into 5-6 mm slices with histological identification in the case of equivocal cysts. This test is not feasible in abattoirs because it takes too long, destroys inspected livers which have monetary value, and could require laboratory facilities. Therefore, routine meat inspection in abattoirs comprises visualisation of the organ surface and palpation to detect hydatid cysts. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of current routine meat inspection processes in an abattoir to detect hepatic hydatid disease (the index test) in comparison to the reference standard test. Both the index and reference standard tests were performed on a systematic random sample of 636 livers from 5023 cattle slaughtered during the study period. Relative proportions of the true positives and false negatives were calculated for categories age, sex, feed-type (grass- or grain-fed), number of cysts, and size of cysts. Pearson's Chi-squared analyses were used to assess the significance of these proportions. Relative diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of the index test were determined whilst accounting for the sampling fraction. The relative proportion of true positives to false negatives in livers with one cyst (True Positives [TP] = 30.2%) was significantly lower than in livers with 2-5 cysts (TP = 59.2%; P < 0.05), and livers with more than ten cysts (TP = 75%; P < 0.001). The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of the index test was 24.9% (95% Confidence Interval [CI] 18.9-32.3) and 98.9% (95% CI 97.6-99.6), respectively. The high specificity demonstrates that truly uninfected livers are generally correctly reported. However, the low sensitivity of the index test indicates that prevalence reported by the focus abattoir is underestimated. Although the intended use of routine meat inspection for hydatid disease - to remove "unwholesome" meat from the line of human consumption - is conducted, the results of this study demonstrate that the prevalence of E. granulosus might be higher than reported in abattoir data., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Mycoplasma bovis can be a bacterial inhabitant of the upper respiratory tract of healthy bovines. In body regions other that the upper respiratory tract however, M. bovis is associated with a number of clinical syndromes such as bovine respiratory disease (BRD). This study used two enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to assess the sero-status of M. bovis-specific antibodies in Australian feeder cattle at the time of feedlot induction and at approximately 42 days on feed (follow-up). The apparent sero-prevalence of M. bovis-specific antibody at induction was estimated to be 3.5% (95% confidence interval [CI] 2.0-5.0%, 47/1354) and 25.3% (95% CI 21.9-28.8%, 343/1354) at follow-up. Exposure to M. bovis between induction and follow-up as demonstrated by an increase in serum antibodies was estimated to be 19.4% (95% CI 16.2-22.6%, 261/1349). Risk factors associated with sero-positivity at feedlot induction included the region where animals were 28 days prior to induction and saleyard exposure at least 27 days prior to induction. Risk factors associated with a sero-increase between induction and follow-up included breed, source region and access to water shared with an adjoining pen of animals. Of these, shared pen water was considered the most important (odds ratio [OR] 3.3, 95% CI 1.5-7.4, p = 0.003). Animals exposed to M. bovis between induction and follow-up were at a substantially increased risk of BRD (OR 2.2, 95% CI 1.4-3.4, p = 0.001). This is the first Australian study that has identified risk factors for M. bovis sero-positivity and sero-increase and shown an association between sero-increase and the risk of BRD in the feeder cattle population. These findings suggest that M. bovis is a significant pathogen in the Australian feeder cattle population. In addition, identification of defined risk factors associated with an increased risk of exposure to M. bovis can assist in the development of targeted control measures to reduce the economic impact of M. bovis associated disease and BRD in feeder cattle., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Background: Cystic echinococcosis (CE) and alveolar echinococcosis (AE) are highly endemic in Xiji County of Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (NHAR) in China where the control campaign based on dog de-worming with praziquantel has been undertaken over preceding decades. This study is to determine the current prevalence of Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis in domestic dogs and monitor the echinococcosis transmission dynamics., Methods: Study villages were selected using landscape patterns (Geographic Information System, GIS) for Echinococcus transmission "hot spots", combined with hospital records identifying risk areas for AE and CE. A survey of 750 domestic dogs, including copro-sampling and owner questionnaires, from 25 selected villages, was undertaken in 2012. A copro-multiplex PCR assay was used for the specific diagnosis of E. granulosus and E. multilocularis in the dogs. Data analysis, using IBM SPSS Statistics, was undertaken, to compare the prevalence of the two Echinococcus spp. in dogs between four geographical areas of Xiji by the χ 2 test. Univariate analysis of the combinations of outcomes from the questionnaire and copro-PCR assay data was carried out to determine the significant risk factors for dog infection., Results: The highest de-worming rate of 84.0% was found in the northwest area of Xiji County, and significant differences (P <  0.05) in the de-worming rates among dogs from the four geographical areas of Xiji were detected. The highest prevalence (19.7%, 59/300) of E. multilocularis occurred in northwest Xiji, though the highest prevalence (18.1%, 38/210) of E. granulosus occurred in southwest Xiji. There was no significant difference (P >  0.05) in the prevalence of E. granulosus in dogs from the northwest, southwest, northeast, and southeast of Xiji, but there were significant differences (P <  0.05) between dogs infected with E. multilocularis from the four areas. None of the other independent variables was statistically significant., Conclusions: The results from this study indicate a high prevalence of both E. granulosus and E. muiltilocularis in dogs in Xiji County, NHAR. Transmission of E. multilocularis was more impacted by geographical risk-factors in Xiji County than that of E. granulosus. Dogs have the potential to maintain the transmission of both species of Echinococcus within local Xiji communities, and the current praziquantel dosing of dogs appears to be ineffective or poorly implemented in this area.

The geographical distribution of Echinococcus spp. infections in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (NHAR) has been reported to be expanding in response to environmental change. The aim of the present study was to predict and compare the spatial distribution of human seropositivity for Echinococcus granulosus and Echinococcus multilocularis and infections with these parasites in dogs in four counties in the south of NHAR to identify communities where targeted prevention and control efforts are required. Predicted seroprevalence of E. granulosus in schoolchildren and E. granulosus infections in dogs concurred spatially, whereas predicted seroprevalence of E. multilocularis in schoolchildren and E. multilocularis infections in dogs differed spatially. Enhanced vegetation index was significantly associated with E. multilocularis seropositivity among schoolchildren, and infections with E. granulosus and E. multilocularis in dogs. A positive association was also found between dog infection with E. granulosus and cultivated land, and a negative association between human seropositivity for E. granulosus and bare-land/artificial surfaces. The findings of this study support the importance of land cover and climatic variables in determining habitat suitability for Echinococcus spp. infections, and suggest that definitive hosts other than dogs (e.g. foxes) are important in defining the geographical risk of human seropositivity for E. multilocularis in NHAR.

Background: Human echinococcoses are parasitic helminth infections that constitute a serious public health concern in several regions across the world. Cystic (CE) and alveolar echinococcosis (AE) in China represent a high proportion of the total global burden of these infections. This study was conducted to predict the spatial distribution of human seropositivity for Echinococcus species in Xiji County, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (NHAR), with the aim of identifying communities where targeted prevention and control efforts are required., Methods: Bayesian geostatistical models with environmental and demographic covariates were developed to predict spatial variation in the risk of human seropositivity for Echinococcus granulosus (the cause of CE) and E. multilocularis (the cause of AE). Data were collected from three cross-sectional surveys of school children conducted in Xiji County in 2002-2003, 2006-2007 and 2012-2013. Environmental data were derived from high-resolution satellite images and meteorological data., Results: The overall seroprevalence of E. granulosus and E. multilocularis was 33.4 and 12.2%, respectively, across the three surveys. Seropositivity for E. granulosus was significantly associated with summer and winter precipitation, landscape fragmentation variables and the extent of areas covered by forest, shrubland, water and bareland/artificial surfaces. Seropositivity for E. multilocularis was significantly associated with summer and winter precipitations, landscape fragmentation variables and the extent of shrubland and water bodies. Spatial correlation occurred over greater distances for E. granulosus than for E. multilocularis. The predictive maps showed that the risk of seropositivity for E. granulosus expanded across Xiji during the three surveys, while the risk of seropositivity for E. multilocularis became more confined in communities located in the south., Conclusions: The identification of high-risk areas for seropositivity for these parasites, and a better understanding of the role of the environment in determining the transmission dynamics of Echinococcus spp. may help to guide and monitor improvements in human echinococcosis control strategies by allowing targeted allocation of resources.

Mycoplasma bovis is associated with several clinical syndromes of cattle. Currently, limited information is available on the sensitivity ( Se ) and specificity ( Sp ) of serological assays used for the detection of M. bovis -specific antibodies. Consequently, it is difficult to critically evaluate the outcomes of studies that use these assays. Therefore, the current study used bovine sera sourced from M. bovis exposure studies from three countries to estimate the Se and Sp of two commercial M. bovis enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), BIO K302 and BIO K260, and Western blotting. Western blotting had the highest Se estimate of 74% (95% confidence interval (CI): 16-98%), compared to the BIO K302: 47% (95% CI: 10-87%) and BIO K260: 28% (95% CI: 1-92%). However, for Sp, the BIO K302: 96% (95% CI: 87-99%) and the BIO K260: 100% (95% CI: 93-100%) out-performed Western blotting: 88% (95% CI: 56-98%). Western blotting was the best assay for detecting seroconversion, correctly identifying 61% (95% CI: 29-86%) of exposed animals compared to 35% for BIO K302 (95% CI: 21-54%) and 8% for BIO K260 (95% CI: 0-87%). While none of the methods assessed had high Se and Sp , the availability of these estimates will aid in the interpretation of studies that use these assays. The results of this study highlight the difficulties encountered when using serology to detect exposure to M. bovis in cattle., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The founding sponsors had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the decision to publish the results.

Background: Human cystic (CE) and alveolar (AE) echinococcoses are zoonotic parasitic diseases that can be influenced by environmental variability and change through effects on the parasites, animal intermediate and definitive hosts, and human populations. We aimed to assess and quantify the spatiotemporal patterns of human echinococcoses in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region (NHAR), China between January 1994 and December 2013, and examine associations between these infections and indicators of environmental variability and change, including large-scale landscape regeneration undertaken by the Chinese authorities., Methods: Data on the number of human echinococcosis cases were obtained from a hospital-based retrospective survey conducted in NHAR for the period 1 January 1994 through 31 December 2013. High-resolution imagery from Landsat 4/5-TM and 8-OLI was used to create single date land cover maps. Meteorological data were also collected for the period January 1980 to December 2013 to derive time series of bioclimatic variables. A Bayesian spatio-temporal conditional autoregressive model was used to quantify the relationship between annual cases of CE and AE and environmental variables., Results: Annual CE incidence demonstrated a negative temporal trend and was positively associated with winter mean temperature at a 10-year lag. There was also a significant, nonlinear effect of annual mean temperature at 13-year lag. The findings also revealed a negative association between AE incidence with temporal moving averages of bareland/artificial surface coverage and annual mean temperature calculated for the period 11-15 years before diagnosis and winter mean temperature for the period 0-4 years. Unlike CE risk, the selected environmental covariates accounted for some of the spatial variation in the risk of AE., Conclusions: The present study contributes towards efforts to understand the role of environmental factors in determining the spatial heterogeneity of human echinococcoses. The identification of areas with high incidence of CE and AE may assist in the development and refinement of interventions for these diseases, and enhanced environmental change risk assessment.

A cross-sectional study of lungs from 1,887 randomly selected pigs from 471 farms from two provinces in the Philippines was carried out to estimate the prevalence of gross pathological lesions, identify potential risk factors and spatial clustering associated with high lung or pleurisy score farms. Lungs from pigs were scored at slaughter. Interviews with the farm managers were conducted to collect information about farm management and biosecurity practices. Of lungs examined, 48% had a lung score above 6 (maximum was 55) and 22% showed pleurisy. When data were aggregated at the farm level, commercial farms were at higher risk of being high lung score farms and high pleurisy farms compared to smallholder farms ( P  < 0.01). Variables that were associated with an increased risk of a farm being a high lung score farm included the presence of a market pen on the farm, not vaccinating against hog cholera and the presence of another piggery within 500 m. Practicing "feedback" (feeding pig manure, viscera or aborted material to pigs), presence of another piggery within 500 m, and allowing commercial livestock vehicles on farm were all associated with an increased risk of being a high pleurisy farm. Spatial analyses revealed a primary 9.6 km-radius cluster of 39 farms with high lung and pleurisy scores in the southeast of Bulacan province. High lung and pleurisy score farms could be targeted to improve on-farm disease control programs to reduce the risk of respiratory diseases. Clusters of high scoring farms could be prioritized for further investigations or for coordinating intervention efforts.