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This article presents information on hantavirus and hantavirus infection. The hantavirus leads to Hanta Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS), a disease that can be fatal and is most commonly associated with the southwestern U.S. Of the four known carriers of HPS, all rodents, one species of deer mouse lives in California and Nevada. Since 1993, researchers have discovered that there is not just one hantavirus that causes HPS, but several. In Navajo medical traditions, mice are considered the bearers of an ancient illness that even predates the bubonic plague in the Navajo region. The illness enters through the mouth, the nose, or the eyes, and it usually attacks the strongest and healthiest of the Navajo people. On the basis of limited information, though, it appears that symptoms may develop between one and five weeks after exposure to potentially infected rodents and their droppings. Four to 10 days after the initial phase of illness, the late symptoms of HPS appear. These include coughing and shortness of breath, with the sensation of, as one survivor put it, a tight band around the chest and a pillow over the face as the lungs fill with fluid. In intensive care, patients are intubated and given oxygen therapy to help them through the period of severe respiratory distress. The virus is mainly transmitted to people when they breathe air contaminated with the virus.

This article presents information on rabies. This preventable viral inflammation of the brain that affects mammals is most often transmitted through the bit of a rabid animal. In the U.S., human fatalities associated with rabies occur in people who fail to seek medical assistance, usually because they were unaware of their exposure. Post-exposure prophylaxis is indicated for persons possibly exposed to a rabid animal. Transmission of the virus usually begins when the infected saliva of a host is passed to an uninfected animal. The most common mode of rabies transmission, however, is through the bite and virus-containing saliva of an infected host. Animals with rabies may act differently than healthy animals. Bats found on the ground or caught by house cats are often sick, healthy bats are rarely accessible except with their roosts. A bite by the animal during the incubation period does not carry a risk of babies because the virus is not in saliva. The bite of the big brown bat, a carrier of rabies, is potentially fatal. These bats are common throughout the U.S. except in parts of Florida and south-central Texas.

This article presents information on skunks. Skunks of one kind or another are found throughout the U.S., with the striped skunk the one most commonly encountered. Skunks only spray when threatened, there are several accounts of peaceful coexistence between skunks and humans. A skunk's special formula is a yellow oil composed of thiols and thioacetate derivatives of these thiols, a substance stored in two walnut-sized glands with openings in the anus. The human nose can detect skunk spray thiols at about 10 parts per billion, and anybody who has driven country roads with open windows knows it is a unique and powerful scent. To neutralize or deodorize skunk spray, the chemicals in the secretion must be changed to a different type of molecule. Beyond the spray factor, skunks are carriers of rabies.

This article presents information on ticks. Ticks top the worst critter on earth list of many people. There are soft body ticks and hard body ticks, and although people might think that a softbody is the one to worry about, it is not. They are not usually carriers of disease and are more prone to attack birds and mammals that have regular resting places. Of the hard body type, there are three species to be concerned about because of the diseases they carry. These are the deer tick, the lone star tick and the wood tick.

This article presents information on feral pigs. The feral pig arrived in North America in 1893 when a herd of 50 animals was brought from Germany's Black Forest to a hunting preserve in New Hampshire's Blue Mountains. Feral pigs, also known as wild boar or feral hogs, do exhibit many of the same behavioral characteristics as domestic pigs, such as wallowing in mud to protect themselves from the heat and from the sun's harmful ways. Like many animals, pigs are emboldened by the size of their group and are more aggressive towards humans en masse than when encountered singly or in groups of five or fewer. The feral pig is omnivorous. Though they mate anytime, these wild pigs usually do so twice per year: summer and winter. They are found in swamps, mountain forests, ridges, and in scrub brush.

This article presents information on mountain lions. Once thought to be endangered, even extinct in many areas, mountain lions have made a strong comeback throughout the U.S. and Canada after bounty hunting was banned in the 1960s. They are by turns very shy and retiring, but when they need food, they can become ferocious. Mountain lions can measure up to nine feet in length, including the tail that may account for two to three of those feet. At all stages of life, mountain lions are easily camouflaged. Although armed with 30 teeth designed for meat eating, muscular jaws, and claws up to an inch in length, mountain lions maximize their abilities through the advantage of ambush. They can produce a range of sounds including hisses, growls, screams, and a shrill whistle to signal alarm. Perhaps the most significant factor influencing cougar-human interactions is the increase in both cougar and human populations, especially in California. Reports of fatal mountain lion attacks date back to 1890. In addition to these fatal rendezvous, there were more than 50 U.S. account of cat attacks, stalkings, and/or menacing encounters over the same period. Mountain lions are found in many types of habitat, including desert, forests, mountains, grasslands, dry brush, and swamps from sea level to 10,000 feet. When confronted by a mountain lion, mountain bikers may position the bike as a defensive weapon, both as a fighting tool and as a device to make one look larger.

This article focuses on black bears and on ways to avoid bear attacks. Although they account for perhaps only one death every four years or so throughout North America, black bears do kill people. Solo individuals who are in remote areas picking berries, walking, or fishing are the ones who are most at risk for this type of extremely rare predatory attack. The circumstances surrounding any bear attack are crucial factors in determining the most appropriate response. Capsaicin spray repellent usually persuades black bears to leave when it is sprayed into their eyes. The disadvantages of relying on spray are that one must be close enough to the bear to effectively use it, and as an airborne solution one cannot completely and accurately predict the strength and direction of the vapor. Extra precautions are often necessary in isolated backcountry situations. For example, store the food in sealed plastic bags suspended from a line between two trees. The black bear is omnivorous, but its diet primarily consists of vegetation including twigs, berries, dandelions, buds, and the cambium layer of trees under the bark. Black bears are found in forests, swamps, and mountains where tree cover is abundant.

The article presents information on bears. Because they hibernate and bring forth new life in the spring, bears are also associated with resurrection and inspiration. There are only eight species worldwide of this magnificent animal, and only three species inhabit the North American continent: polar bears, grizzly bears, and black bears. A bear who begins hibernating when it is seriously underweight is likely to die during the winter. The harm is that as bears come to associate food with people, they lose their fear and become gradually more aggressive--grizzlies more so than black bears. Black bears average four to six feet in length and weigh 200 to 600 pounds. Both black bears and grizzlies come in different colors. The best way to differentiate black bears from grizzly bears is to examine the shape and proportion of the body and head. Bears have a legendary, phenomenal sense of smell. They can smell carcasses or newborn wild ungulate calves such as elk from several miles away. As for intelligence, bears learn rapidly and remember for a long time. Different bears have different personalities. Except for breeding females who have their cubs with them, however, bears are essentially solitary animals.

The article presents information on two dangerous animals, opossums and raccoons. Opossums are primitive animals that date back to the dinosaur age, which is remarkable because they are notoriously dimwitted. When they are threatened, sometimes they feign death by playing possum, a proven defense even against the jaws of a Siberian husky in a fenced yard. It can also emit smelly stuff from its anal glands. Raccoons, of course, are the masked bandits who are quite, quite clever, as well as exceptionally dexterous. They can grow to more than three feet in length and weigh up to almost 50 pounds. Raccoons are formidable, and most predators know that to engage one can mean a losing fight to the death. The Virginia opossum is common throughout the eastern U.S., and in the western U.S. it ranges along the entire Pacific coast and in central Idaho, eastern Wyoming, Colorado, and south to central New Mexico and central and southeastern Arizona. They are generally not aggressive but will defend themselves if cornered. The raccoon's omnivorous diet includes grain, nuts, berries, rodents, insects, crayfish, bird eggs, and criterion. One litter per year of usually four young are delivered in the spring.

The article deals with biting mammals and tips on handling close encounters with such animals. With regard to coyotes, although attacks are very rare, they have occurred primarily when coyotes have been habituated to the presence of humans and have learned to directly associate people with food. A pet's unconditional affection provides emotional continuity and perhaps even a lifeline for a child. On the cautionary side however, according to a 1996 National Center for Injury Prevention and Control report, 4.7 million people, or 1.8 percent of the U.S. population, are bitten by dogs annually. During the ten years prior (1986-1996) the number of dog bites requiring medical care rose from 585,000 to 800,000, a whopping 37 percent. Cat bites, however, are much more likely to develop serious infection because of the types of bacteria they carry in their mouths. Most bite victims are children between the ages of five and 14, and they are likely to be bitten on the face. When dealing with stray or feral kitties, be careful and wear gloves, or at minimum use a cloth or towel as a bite barrier. Pregnant women should avoid coming into contact with the cat's litter box because it is a source of toxoplasmosis, an infection caused by a protozoan that can cause mental retardation in newborns.

This article provides information on jellyfishes and related species. Jellies are carried by the wind, waves, and currents, but some species can also swim efficiently using jet propulsion by expelling water from their hollow bell. To the untrained eye it appears that jellies are aimless floaters, but they can move in a general direction; and they are actually always trolling for food using their long following tentacles that can wrap around swimmers unaware. Their stings can cause a range of symptoms from mild rashes to death.

This article provides information on rays. Think of rays and skates as nearly two-dimensional fishes. They are related to sharks and diverged from them at about the time of the dinosaurs, roughly 200 million years ago. Aside from being very flat in form, rays and skates differ from sharks in the fact that they glide through the massive water weight of the ocean by using their greatly enlarged pectoral fins. When not gliding through the water, most rays often rest in the soft sand or muddy shores. They can settle down and quickly submerge their bodies. This mastery of hiding ion plan sight, contributes unavoidable to human-ray interactions. Swimmers or waders sometimes inadvertently step on a stingray or an eagle ray, whose venomous tails will whip up on defense to deliver a painful injury. Several ray species include bat ray, diamond stingray, and round stingray.

This article provides information on sharks and shark attacks. Sharks are members of the Chondrichthyes class, whose name from the Greek means cartilage and fish. The morphology of the shark has stayed essentially the same because sharks are so efficient at what they do that little change is necessary. Fifty percent of all sharks attain a length somewhere between 6 and 39 inches, and most sharks pose no threat at all to humans. Several shark species include blacktip shark, great hammerhead shark, shortfin mako shark, tiger shark, and white shark.

This article provides information on cacti. The real version of the western U.S. landscape is populated with cacti, including prickly pears and chollas. California and Nevada have approximately 40 species of these distinctive plants that have so ably adapted to the rigors of the desert and that bloom so beautifully in such an arid land. With so many species, the general and obvious rule of thumb is to be on the lookout for spiny plants, as those spines can be hard to remove. Some of the cacti species include barrel cactus, hedgehog cactus, and teddybear cactus.

This article discusses the toxicology, prevention and treatment of poison ivy, poison oak and poison sumac. This trio is reported to be the single most common cause of allergic reactions in the U.S. A person can get contact dermatitis from poison ivy only by coming in contact with the urushiol that is released when the plant is bruised or crushed. Although that sounds easy enough to avoid, the plant is delicate and easily bruised on contact--with anything. The poison oak rash, on the other hand, can affect almost any part of the body, especially in places where skin is thin. Sensitivity may occur after only one exposure, but usually people develop sensitivity to poison oak, ivy, or sumac only after several encounters with the plants.

This article presents information on some of the common flora species that are potentially harmful for humans to ingest. Oleander is a prime example of the toxic potential lurking even in suburban yards. This commonly cultivated ornamental evergreen shrub is widely used as colorful hedging along driveways and property borders. All parts of the plant are poisonous; if ingested , one leaf is potent enough to kill an adult. Allergic reactions to pollen produce the typical symptoms of sneezing, nasal discharge, congestion, and an itchy nose and throat. Seasonal allergic rhinitis occurs during pollen seasons in the spring, summer, and fall.

This section presents information on deerflies and horseflies. Both of these biters will feed on humans, but it is more likely a deerfly that is biting humans, and more likely a horsefly after livestock. Both generally resemble a horsefly, but the deerfly is slightly larger than a housefly, and the horsefly can start to take on sci-fi proportions when they reach over an inch in length. These flies are potential vectors of such diseases as anthrax, tularemia, anaplasmosis, hog cholera, equine infectious anemia, and filariasis, and perhaps Lyme disease. However, horseflies, black flies, sand flies, deerflies, gnats, and other assorted nuisances may not be driven away by insect repellents.

This article presents information on recluse spiders. One reason people fear brown recluse spiders is that they are fairly small, seldom-seen spiders. Adults' bodies are about 0.25 inch long, with legs that span the size of a quarter or a little more. Recluses can vary from light yellowish brown to dark reddish brown, but most are light to medium brown. A certain means of identifying the recluse spider is its three pairs of eyes. Most spiders have eight eyes, so the semicircular arrangement of three pairs is a good feature to look for.

This article provides information on black widow spiders. The male black widow spider is shy and rarely seen by humans, and although the female does attack the male after he has fulfilled his reproductive duties, this does not happen in every case. Of course they kill other creatures in search of food, but females are generally not aggressive unless they perceive a threat or are guarding an egg sac. The black widow female builds a large, stout, funnel-shaped web. She hangs upside down in front of the funnel, displaying her vivid coloration to potential predators.

This section presents information on mosquitoes. These insects are more than an annoyance and more than an itch you want to scratch or smack. Mosquitoes mainline potentially deadly diseases: malaria, yellow fever, dengue, and encephalitis. As carriers of disease, or vectors, mosquitoes are the global champs. Of all the insects, mosquitoes are probably the most harmful to humans because of what they transmit. Malaria alone kills at least two million people per year worldwide. Mosquitoes also carries diseases that are serious threats to dogs, pigs, horses, and birds.

This section presents information on fleas. Fleas are unique in the insect world--so unique, in fact, that entomologists are uncertain who their closest insect relatives are. Fleas bite skin with piercing-and-sucking mouth parts, similar to those of mosquitoes, that go on to penetrate blood vessels. When Yersinia pestis infects humans through the bite of fleas infected with the plague bacteria, it takes the form of septicemic plague, pneumonic plague, or bubonic plague. The plague organism can be transmitted to a human via the bite of a vector, or transmitter. Although infected rodents and their infected fleas are the primary vectors worldwide, other species can serve as hosts.

This section presents information on lice. There are two kinds of lice: the biters and the suckers. The least harmful louse lives in pubic hair, where it can hang on to a single hair for virtually its whole life by its relatively substantial claws. On the other hand, head lice tend to infect children, especially those with long hair. Anyone who comes in close contact with someone who already has head lice, their contaminated clothing and other belongings may be at risk. By far, the most dangerous lice are body lice. These are parasitic insects that live on the body and in the clothing or bedding of infested humans. Body lice can produce intense itching, with swelling and skin damage at the site of the bite.

This section presents information on ants. When agitated enough, most ants are capable of bites and/or stings. Ants may cause damage to very young plants, ripe fruits, and berries. The fire ant, though, deserves special mention for its speedy aggression, notorious stings, and relentless advance throughout the southern portions of the U.S. west to Southern California and Nevada. Fire ants are so named because their venom induces a painful, fiery sensation. When disturbed fire ants are very aggressive.

This section presents information on different sphecid wasps. Black-and-yellow mud dauber can sting painfully. Females can be found at edges of ponds or pools collecting mud to be shaped by their mandibles into balls to form linked tubular cells. On the other hand, common sand wasps maintain their nests from year to year but are not social in the usual sense. They will, however, fly en masse against intruders. Most sphecid wasps are potentially lethal for those highly allergic and prone to anaphylactic shock.

This section presents information on bees and wasps. In the scientific world, these creatures are grouped in the order Hymenoptera. These insects are considered eusocial, meaning truly social. Eusocial insects exhibit both cooperation in division of labor and reproduction expressed within overlapping generations. Soldier bees, all female, will sting in defense of the nest with their modified ovipositors located on the end of the abdomen. Furthermore, communication among the eusocial insects involves a complex and powerful network of behaviors and adaptations differently applied to various situations.

This section presents information on insects and arachnids. Creatures from the Insecta and Arachnida classes are all arthropods, meaning they belong to the phylum of creatures that have jointed legs and a hard exoskeleton that protects their organs and gives their bodies shape. Despite their myriad appearances, adult insects have three pairs of jointed legs and three body parts. Arachnids, on the other hand, have four pairs of legs, no antennae, and only two body segment because their head and thorax are joined into one body segment called the cephalothorax.

This section presents information on toads and frogs. With a few minor exceptions, toads and frogs are generally not harmful to humans. However, dogs and cats sometimes have lethal run-ins. Toads have an enlarged pair of parotid glands situated on various locations on their cranial crests. These glands secrete a poison, viscous and white, which is released into the mouths of predators. Some frogs have a similar secretion which serves the same function. According to the Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins, dogs can be intoxicated biting or ingesting the toad that secretes the poison in the oral mucous of the predator.

This article provides information on automobile collisions with deer. Between 60-75 percent of all deer collisions occur between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m. and during clear weather, while roughly 75 percent of all deer collisions occur in late fall to early winter and in late spring to early summer. To reduce the number of deer-vehicle collisions, several manufacturers have developed deer whistles to mount on the front bumper of an automobile. The theory is that these whistles emit ultrasonic sounds that are frightening to deer, and they claim that their use will significantly reduce the rate of deer-vehicle collisions.

This article provides an overview of hantavirus. The hantavirus leads to Hanta Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS), a disease that can be fatal and is most commonly associated with the southwestern U.S. Symptoms of HPS include fever, fatigue, abdominal problems and shortness of breath. As of 2001, there is no specific treatment or cure for hantavirus infection. However, if the infected individuals are recognized early and are taken to an intensive care unit, some patients may do better. In intensive care, patients are intubated and given oxygen therapy to help them through the period of severe respiratory distress. Two species of mice, the white-footed or wood mouse and the deer mouse are known to carry the virus. Two species of rats, the marsh rice rat and the hispid cotton rat are also carriers.

This article provides an overview of rabies in mammals. This preventable viral inflammation of the brain that affects mammals is most transmitted through a bite of a rabid animal. The most majority of rabies cases reported to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control & Prevention each year occur in wild animals like raccoons, skunks, bats and foxes. Rabies virus infects the central nervous system and ultimately causes death. Death usually occurs within days of the onset of symptoms. Once symptoms have appeared, the treatment for rabies is ineffective. There are two common categories of rabies. One type is furious rabies. Animals with this type are hostile, may bite at objects, and have an increase in saliva. The second and more common form is known as paralytic or dumb rabies. An animal with dumb rabies is timid and shy. It often rejects food and has paralysis of the lower jaw and muscles.

This article provides information on skunks. Skunks of one kind or another are found throughout the U.S., with the striped skunk the one most commonly encountered. Skunks only spray when threatened; there are several accounts of peaceful coexistence between skunks and humans. It is true that de-scented skunks make good pets, behaving similarly to cats. In the wild, though, the skunk a person or a dog encounter will likely initiate defensive action rather quickly. Warning signs before a skunk sprays include shaking of its tail, growling, turning its head and spitting.

This article provides information on black bears. The article offers ways to handle an encounter with them. Once common throughout the southeastern region, black bears now live in the Appalachian Mountains, in parts of Arkansas, in Florida's national forests and wildlife refuges in the central regions, and along the Gulf of Mexico's borders with Florida, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana. The circumstances surrounding any bear attack are crucial factors in determining a person's most appropriate response. For this reason, the best tool humans have to avoid dangerous or deadly bear encounters is their brain.

This article provides information on bears. Along with dogs, to whom they are anciently related, bears are mostly carnivorous. This means they have sharp, long canine teeth for puncturing and ripping flesh, as well as molars to slice, shred and grind. In order to sustain their weights they must consume great quantities of food, especially prior to the winter hibernation, when they do not eat, urinate or defecate. A bear who begins hibernation when it is seriously underweight is likely to die during the winter. This deep need for tremendous quantities of food puts the bear on collision course with people, many of whom act thoughtlessly.

This article provides information on opossums and raccoons. Opossums are roughly the size of house cats and top out at about 15 pounds. More often opossums tries to bluff its attacker by hissing, screeching, salivating, opening its mouth wide to show all of its 50 teeth, and sometimes excreting a greenish substance. Raccoons, on the other hand, are quite clever as well as exceptionally dexterous. They can grow to more than 3 feet in length and weigh up to almost 50 pounds. Alarmed and anxious raccoons can cause extensive damage. The article presents ways to thwart opossums and raccoons.

This article presents tips to minimize the risk of dangerous or deadly encounters with animals. When it comes to canines and felines, the danger of a close encounter of the fang kind is greatest at home. Domestic dogs and cats are many times more likely to inflict bites than their wild country cousins. People who are trying to help an injured dog or cat, even if it is their own pet, should be specially cautious. If it can be accomplished safely, injured dogs should be muzzled; otherwise it might be better to wait for animal control assistance.

This article offers a guide to safe encounters with flora species in southeastern U.S. that are potentially harmful for humans. There are only two ways to get in trouble with plants: ingesting them and touching them. The most likely plants that will give people troubles are poison ivy, oak, or sumac. This article shows an incomplete inventory indicating the number of common flora species that are potentially harmful for humans or pets to ingest. The point of this partial list is to indicate that there are many dangers in the plant kingdom.

This article offers a guide to safe encounters with rays in southeastern U.S. Rays and skates are related to sharks. Skates pose people no problems in the U.S., but with rays, an encounter can be shocking or stinging. Most rays often rest in the soft sand or muddy shores. Rays are known to be complex animals with rather large brains and well-developed sensory systems. They are often found within inches of the water's edge. The sting of a ray is actually an adapted dorsal fin on top of the tail. The edges of stings are serrated, hard, and flattened to a point at the tip.

This article offers a guide to safe encounters with jellyfish and their relatives in southeastern U.S. Jellyfishes or jellies literally have no heart, no brain, no blood, no gills. Jellies are carried by the wind, waves, and currents, but they can also swim efficiently using jet propulsion expelling water from their hollow bell. The Portuguese man-of-war is infamous for its sting and aided by a mysterious and legendary name. It is found in tropical waters. The sea nettle runs second to the man-of-war in frequency of marine misadventure in the U.S.

This article offers a guide to safe encounters with black widow spiders in southeastern U.S. The male is shy and rarely seen by humans, and although the female does attack the male after he has fulfilled his reproductive duties, this does not happen in every case. Females are generally not aggressive unless they perceive a threat or are guarding an egg sac. The black widow spider consumes not only insects, centipedes, and other small vertebrates, but also those that are proportionately much larger, such as giant cockroaches and small gecko lizards.

This article offers a guide to safe encounters with ticks in southeastern U.S. There are soft body ticks and hard body ticks. They are not usually carriers of disease and are more prone to attack birds and mammals that have regular resting places. Of the hard body type, there are three species to be concerned about because of the diseases they carry. These are the deer tick, the lone star tick and the wood tick. As a rule, if children are discovered to have ticks, it is a good idea to write the information down and keep it for several months.

This article offers a guide to safe encounters with brown recluse spiders in southeastern U.S. Brown recluses are fairly small, seldom-seen spiders. Recluses can vary from light yellowish brown to dark reddish brown, but most are light to medium brown. Brown recluse spiders are adaptable and active in temperatures ranging between 45 to 110 degrees Fahrenheit. They can survive long periods without food or water and may live two years or more. Brown recluse spiders are really reclusive. Most people who are living in proximity to brown recluses will never see one or be bitten by one.

This article offers a guide to safe encounters with deerflies and horseflies in southeastern U.S. Both of these biters will feed on humans. Both generally resemble a horsefly, but the deerfly is slightly larger than a housefly. Deerflies come in late spring to early summer. Both types of lies are potential vectors of such diseases as anthrax, tularemia, anaplasmosis, hog cholera, equine infectious anemia, filariasis, and perhaps Lyme disease. Adult deerflies emerge from the soil in late May or early June.