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In this paper, first the different measurement techniques for the I–V parameters of multi-junction solar cells are analyzed and classified. Some of the methods which have been derived from single junction measurements become iterative which causes new problems. We then discuss the uncertainties in the short circuit current. Finally we present our approach for multi-junction measurement, an improved reference cell method which takes into account the coupling of the spectral mismatch factors of the sub-cells, and we describe our current equipment.

A reference solar cell method with software preselection of the simulator setting is discussed. This method has a high potential for reducing measurement time. The authors report the progress in setting up a triple source simulator for large-area solar cells with an in situ measurement of the spectrum using a calibrated spectroradiometer from 350 nm to 1500 nm. They present details of their high-precision spectral response facility for solar cells of up to 10*10 cm/sup 2/ over a wavelength range of 320 nm to 1500 nm. An analysis is made of the propagation of systematic spectral uncertainties: typically a 10% spectral uncertainty leads to a 1.5% uncertainty in short-circuit current when the spectral mismatch method is used. >

The closely related species of the gypsy and the nun moth (Lymantria (Porthetria) dispar andL. monacha) were investigated with respect to their electrophysiological (electro-antennogram and single cell) responses to the sex pheromone (disparlure:cis-7,8-epoxy-2-methyl-octadecane) and 56 structurally related epoxides and the disparlure-precursor olefin. Within the limitations of reproducibility of the measurements the sequence of the effectiveness of all the tested compounds is nearly identical in both species, disparlure being every time the most effective compound. From this is deduced a high similarity in the receptor systems for female pheromones of the two moth species.

Heptane washes of the excised ovipositors of Choristoneura parallela (Robinson) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) females were analyzed by capillary chromatography with polar and apolar liquid phases, by capillary gas-chromatography-mass spectrometry. and by microchemical degradation techniques. A mixture of four compounds was found that serves as a sex pheromone blend; ( E )-11-tetradecen-1-ol is the major component and ( Z )-11-tetradecen-1-ol, tetracadecan-1-ol, and ( E )-11-tetradecen-1-ol acetate arc minor components. Field traps baited with a mixture of these four compounds captured as many C. parallela males as traps baited with virgin females. Population-monitoring studies using the pheromone in Maryland showed that C. parallela is bivoltine.

Glass open-tubular capillary Chromatographic and combined glass open-tubular capillary chromatographic-mass spectrometric analyses of ovipositor washes of femaleHeliothis zea, chemical characterization, chemical synthesis, and laboratory and field bioassays showed that the ovipositor wash of the species is made up of 90–95% (Z)-11-hexadecenal, 1–2% (Z)-9-hexadecenal, 0.4–2% (Z)-7-hexadecenal, and 2–7% hexadecanal. Stimuli containing a binary mixture of (Z)-11-hexadecenal and (Z)-9-hexadecenal or the binary mixture in combination with any of the other aldehydes identified from the females elicited intense attraction and close-range precopulatory reactions fromH. zea males.

The sex attractant of Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders) was isolated from mixed sexes and from females only by chromatographic purification of the alcohol precursor and its acetylated product. Studies on the structure of the pheromone confirm a previous report that it is a mixture of (Z, Z) - and (Z, E) -7, 11-hexadecadien-1-ol acetate in roughly equal amount. All 4 geometric isomers of 7, 11-hexadecadien-1-ol acetate were synthesized and characterized. Electroantennogram response was determined for the 4 isomers and hexalure. Moth captures in traps were determined for the following: the 4 isomers individually and all together; 2-component mixtures of the isomers; the 1:1 mixture of the pheromonal isomers plus small amounts of the other 2 isomers; a series of concentrations of the pheromone (1:1 isomer ratio) with and without trioctanoin as keeper; and the pheromone plus candidate inhibitors (which were found in the extract), synergists, and a stabilizer.

The Comstock mealybug, Pseudococcus comstocki (Kuwana) is a tiny insect that is a serious agricultural pest of citrus, pomegranates, and other fruit in California and elsewhere throughout the world. The fungus that forms on the insect secretions causes severe smutting and results in economic losses to fruit growers. The female insects emit a sex pheromone that attracts males, and traps containing live females have been used to detect infestations. This pheromone has now been isolated from volatiles trapped from an air stream passed over the insects. The identification as 2, 6-dimethyl-1, 5-heptadien-3-ol acetate was made on the basis of chromatographic and spectroscopic data of the natural material and its derivatives. This is the first pheromone identified from the mealybug family and its norterpene (9-carbon) skeleton is uncommon among insect pheromones. The compound was synthesized and shown to be highly attractive in field bioassay at concentrations as low as 0.2 μg per trap.

Field, laboratory, and electroantennogram (BAG) data were obtained on 1-tetradecanol acetate, an inhibitor of attraction of Pectinophora gossyprella (Saunders) moths to hexalure and related compounds. Of the 16 compounds tested, those giving the greatest EAG responses also were the most effective inhibitors of attraction of moths to hexalure-containing traps in field tests. Hexalure alone produced an intense EAG response which was depressed by addition of most of the test compounds. In field and laboratory tests, the addition of inhibitor, on the same or on separate wicks, to traps containing hexalure depressed captures compared to those of traps containing only hexalure. However, in laboratory and field experiments in which 1-tetradecanol acetate on paper squares was distributed over cotton plants, mating inhibition did not occur, indicating that the inhibitor did not interfere with the moth’s ability to orient to the female’s sex pheromone.

Soldiers of the East African fungus-growing termiteMacrotermes subhyalinus (Rambur) (Termitidae: Macrotermitinae) employ both mechanical and chemical defenses. Soldiers release a chemical secretion composed of long-chain saturated and monounsaturated hydrocarbons into wounds inflicted by their powerful mandibles. Chemical analysis of the secretion shows the paraffin fraction to consist primarily ofn-tricosane,n-pentacosane, 3- and 5-methylpentacosane, and 5-methylheptacosane. The major oleflns were identified as (Z)-9-heptacosene and (Z)-9-nonacosene. The secretion originates from the frontal glands of both major and minor soldiers; however, the hypertrophied gland of the major soldiers contains 500-fold more secretion than that of the minor soldiers. This secretion appears to impair the healing of wounds in test ants, and thus could represent a valuable supplement to the mechanical defense mechanism.

The sex attractant pheromone of the citrus mealybug, Planococcus citri (Risso), has been Identified as (1 R - cis )-(+)-2,2-dimethyl-3-(1-methylethenyl)cyclobutanemethanol acetate (VI).

Orfralure [93% (Z), 7% (E)-8-dodecen-1-ol acetate], the synthetic pheromone of the oriental fruit moth,Grapholitha molesta (Busck), was released into the air of orchard test plots either by hanging plastic laminated dispensers on trees or by aerial dispersal of microcapsules containing a solution of the lure. Trap catch was reduced 95% or more with the most effective formulations, but consistently higher reductions were produced by the dispensers. In tests as long as 28 weeks with dispensers, a single retreatment at midseason maintained an effective concentration.

The sex pheromone of the Comstock mealybug,Pseudococcus comstocki (Kuwana) was isolated from volatiles trapped from air passing over virgin female insects. Combined gas chromatography, mass and infrared spectroscopy, and microreactions indicated that the structure was 2,6-dimethyl-1,5-heptadien-3-ol acetate. This was confirmed by synthesis; several analogs were also prepared. The natural and synthetic pheromone caused similar trap capture of male insects. Synthetic analogs were significantly less attractive in field tests and the addition of minor amounts of the corresponding alcohol to the pheromone appeared to enhance trap capture, but the results were not statistically conclusive.

Field tests were conducted in sparsely infested areas of Massachusetts to evaluate the effectiveness of microdispersable formulations of racemic disparlure in disrupting mating of Lymantria dispar (L.). The incidence of mating of laboratory-reared female moths placed in treated plots was significantly less than that in control plots, and the degree of mating disruption was correlated with the amount of disparlure applied. The number of male moths captured in (+)-disparlure-baited traps was also correlated with the incidence of mating. In plots treated with 50 g/ha, only 2% mating was observed, compared with 65% mating in control plots.

Plots of percent abundance vs m/e for selected series of ions (differing by 14 mass units) obtained by low resolution mass spectrometry allowed the epoxide position to be located in 30 C17−C21 vic-dialkyl and trialkyl epoxides. Major diagnostic fragmentations are as follows. In thevic-dialkyl epoxides of the study, fragments useful for determining epoxide position result from α-cleavage, and epoxide position may be recognized by the maxima obtained in a plot of percent abundance vs m/e values in the CnH2n−1O series (113, 127, 141 ....); a similar plot of percent abundances vs m/e values in the CnH2n−2 series (110, 124, 138 ....) also shows maxima for ions corresponding to those obtained by transannular cleavage plus water elimination. In the trialkyl epoxides, fragments most useful for locating epoxide position are those obtained from ions corresponding to α-cleavage plus H-transfer; epoxide position may, thus, be recognized by the maxima obtained in a plot of percent abundance vs m/e values in the CnH2nO series (72, 86, 100 ....). Transannular cleavage with H-transfer produces CnH2n+1O products (m/e 115, 129, 143....), with the fragment containing the methyl substituent being much more abundant.

(Z)-11-Hexadecen-1-ol acetate (Z11–16∶Ac) free of theE isomer (

Cuticular rinses of the female stable fly,Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), contained saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons that incited the male fly to attempt couplation. These compounds present in GLC trappings of the saturated hydrocarbon fraction showing highest biological activity were mono- and dimethyl-substituted hentria- and tritriacontanes. Active trappings from the unsaturated hydrocarbon fraction contained (Z)-9-hentriacontene, (Z)-9-tritriacontene, and methyl-branched hentria- and tritriacontenes.

Disparlure, the gypsy moth sex pheromone, was aerially applied to three plots, using a different controlled-release formulation-gelatin microcapsules, flakes of plastic laminates, or hollow fibers-in each plot. Disparlure concentrations in air were measured intermittently over a 34-day period after application. Measurements were made at four heights above ground: 0.3,2,5, and 10m. Wind speed and air temperature were measured concurrently. Disparlure was emitted from the microcapsules and fibers at very high levels for the first day or two; thereafter, all three formulations produced gradually decreasing aerial concentrations. After 32-34 days, concentrations in all plots ranged from 1.5% to 15.5% of those on the first day, although most of the pheromone remained in the formulations. Results suggest that the effective life of all three formulations for mating disruption by atmospheric permeation would be near 30 days under the test conditions, with fibers likely to have the shortest life. Concentrations varied diurnally throughout the experiment, with highest levels generally between 1400 and 2200 hr each day. Concentrations were highest at the 10-m height with microcapsules and at the 0.3- and 10-m heights with flakes, but were similar at all heights with fibers. Biological implications of the results are presented.

(Z)-11 -Hexadecenal (77–91%), (Z)-7-hexadecenal (0.1–2%), (Z)-9-hexadecenal (0.3–2%), hexadecanal (3–19%), (Z)-11-hexadecen-1-ol (1–5%), tetradecanal (1–3%), and (Z)-9-tetradecenal (1–3%) were identified from the heptane washes of the ovipositor of femaleHeliothis virescens (F.) females. In field bioassays, a 152-μg mixture of these seven compounds deployed in an insect trap exceeded the attractiveness of 4 virgin femaleH. virescens for males and was 5–6 times more attractive than a mixture of (Z)-1 1-hexadecenal and (Z)-9-tetradecenal (virelure) that was previously reported as the sex pheromone of the species. Four of the seven compounds produced byH. virescens females are also produced byH. zea (Boddie). Specificity of pheromonal signals among the two species is ostensibly dependent upon one or more of the three additional compounds [tetradecanal, (Z)-9-tetradecenal, and (Z)-1 1-hexadecen-1-ol] produced by femaleH. virescens.

By 1975, insect sex pheromones had been identified from 60 species (1) of moths (Lepidoptera), and nearly all of the 40 compounds involved had been found to be mono- or di-unsaturated C10 to C18 straight-chain aldehydes, alcohols, or acetates, and the sites of olefinic unsaturation were, with one exception (2), at odd-numbered positions in the carbon chain. Since that time, many more lepidopteran pheromone components have been identified, and mono-unsaturated compounds with unsaturation at even-numbered positions in the carbon chain remain extremely rare (3–6). However, in females of Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenee), called the Asian corn borer, we have discovered another mono-olefinic lepidopteran sex pheromone that has the site of unsaturation at ab even carbon position. Females of this corn-pest species produce a ca . 1:1 geometric mixture of ( Z )- and ( E )- 12-tetradecen-1-o1 acetate to attract and sexually stimulate males. On the other hand, the nearest taxonomic relative (7) of the Asian corn borer, the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner), uses a mixture of ( Z )- and ( E )-11-tetradecen-1-o1 acetate as its sex pheromone (8). Biochemical explanation of the paucity of monounsaturated moth sex pheromones with olefinic sites at even numbered carbon positions remains to be elucidated.

Volatilization of disparlure ( cis -7,8-epoxy-2-methyloctadecane) applied in gelatin microcapsules (2%-NCR and 10%-NCR formulations) to 1-ha plots at 500 g/ha was measured intermittently for 2 mo by a micrometeorological technique. The formulations differed in rates and duration of disparlure release. Vapor fluxes initially decreased, later increased with increasing air temperature. Estimated season-long vaporization of the pheromone from the 2 and 10% formulations was only 2.3 and 12.2% of that applied, respectively. Results, which were consistent with laboratory measurements of release rates, showed need for improvement in controlled-release technology.

The attractive power of disparlure-the sex attractant of the gypsy moth (Lymantria/Porthetria dispar)-vs. four synthetic analogous epoxides was tested in 1972 in a pine forest near Heidelberg. With two levels of concentration in the traps (2 and 20 μg), a total of 1112 nun moths (Lymantria/Porthetria monacha) and 257 gypsy moths were caught in 9 experiments. Approximately equal percentages of the two species were caught with a given compound. Disparlure was by far the most effective attractant. The other substances were between three and twenty times less effective. These experiments support the assumption that disparlure is also at least part of the sexual attractant of the nun moth. In two additional experiments, moth captures by a series of increasing disparlure concentrations (2-100 μg/trap) were determined. The catches of both species increased nonlinearly with the bait concentration. The experiments are discussed with respect to new (unpublished) electrophysiological recordings from disparlure receptor cells in both species. Special attention is given to the supposed masking effect of the disparlure precursor (an olefin). This substance is ineffective as an attractant, but has been reported to reduce the attraction of gypsy moth males to disparlure or to live females. However, the olefin elicits excitatory reactions in the same type of receptor cell that responds to disparlure and the related epoxides. Furthermore, no masking of the electrophysiological response was observed with the receptor cells when the olefin was added to disparlure.

Disparlure, (cis-7,8-epoxy-2-methyloctadecane) the sex attractant of the gypsy moth, Porthetria (Lymantria) dispar, attracts the male nun moth, Lymantria monacha, in the field and is a highly effective olfactory stimulus in electroantennogram (EAG) and single-cell recordings. We have now analyzed the extract of 2000 abdominal tips of the female nun moth. Physical and chemical tests, which included gas-chromatographic retention times, elution volumes from silica gel and silica gel-silver nitrate columns, mass spectra, epoxide functionality, EAG-activity of chromatographic fractions with gypsy moth antennae, presence of disparlure precursor, all indicated that disparlure is present in the extract of nun moth sex glands. The optical activity of the natural disparlure of the two species has not yet been determined. Several authors have reported 1-0 that disparlure

Duplicate experiments were conducted in Massachusetts and Maryland to evaluate 7 aerially applied controlled-release formulations of disparlure for gypsy moth mating disruption. The incidence of mating of female moths was significantly less in treated plots than in untreated plots. Depending upon the formulation sprayed, mating in treated plots over the season was reduced 83 to 21% from that in control plots in Massachusetts; the mating reduction in Maryland treatment plots varied from 97 to 19%. Several formulations reduced mating throughout the entire flight season. In plots treated with the most effective formulation (1976 2% NCR microcapsules), the mating reduction dropped to 73% in Massachusetts during peak flight, when most male moths were present. With this same formulation, the mating reduction in Maryland, where more sparse populations existed, was at least 88% throughout the test.

Trapping experiments were conducted in Massachusetts to compare the attractiveness of the enantiomers of disparlure ( cis -7,8-epoxy-2-methyloctadecane), the sex attractant pheromone of the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.). The (+) enantiomer of disparlure showed much greater activity than the (−) enantiomer or an equivalent amount of racemic disparlure.

Out-of-season field tests on 16-ha plots were conducted in 1972 to develop means of using disparlure in controlling Porthetria dispar (L.) either by mass-trapping of males or with disparlure-containing formulations that divert male moths in their attempts to find mates. In tests begun early in April on Dauphin Island, AL, small tube traps (25/ha; each coated inside with adhesive containing 500 μ g disparlure) suppressed moth captures in disparlure-baited monitor traps 94% for 7 weeks. A 6/12-mesh-cork formulation (applied at a rate of 8.2 g disparlure/ha) suppressed captures 99% for 7 weeks. A molecular-sieve formulation (8.2 g lure/ha) began to fail ca. 1 month postapplication. A 2nd series of tests was conducted in the natural habitat of the moth on Cape Cod, MA, starting in late May using monitor traps baited with either disparlure or live virgin females. Although the 6/12 cork formulation (11.1 g lure/ha) failed when tested 33 days postapplication, a fine-cork formulation and a microcapsule formulation (11.1 and 1.8 g lure/ha, respectively) remained effective for 6 weeks despite heavy rains, probably because they included a sticker to anchor them to foliage. In postseason tests on Cape Cod, 1 molecular-sieve and 3 microcapsule formulations suppressed catches of released males 90% or more (vs. no treatment) when tested 6½ and 8 weeks posttreatment.

Several methyl-branched saturated C32, C33, and C34 hydrocarbons have been identified from larvae and mandibular glands of Heliothis virescens (F.) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) that trigger a short-range host-seeking response of its parasitoid, Cardiochiles nigriceps, Viereck (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Although the individual components elicited a response, a mixture of the most active C32, C33, and C34 hydrocarbons was significantly more active than the individual components; some mixtures were as active as the contents of the mandibular gland of the host. Zusammenfassung ISOLIERUNG, IDENTIFIZIERUNG UND SYNTHESE DER DIE WIRTSSUCHE STIMULIERENDEN STOFFE BEI CARDIOCHILES NIGRICEPS, EINEM PARASITOID DES TABAKKNOSPENWURMS Isomere Monomethylalkane in den Larven und in der Mandibeldruse von Heliothis virescens, die bei ihrem Parasitoid, Cardiochiles nigriceps, nach Kontakt eine wirtsuchende Wirkung besitzen, wurden identifiziert. Mischungen mehrerer, als aktiv erkannter Substanzen (z.B. 12-Methyl C31 + 12-Methyl C32 + 13-Methyl C33, optimal zusammen 500 ng) wirkten starker als die einzelnen Komponenten und konnten die Wirkung des Mandibulardruseninhalts erreichen.

Air permeation trials were conducted to determine whether trap catches of the peachtree borer (PTB)Synanthedon exitiosa (Say) and lesser peachtree borer (LPTB)S. pictipes (Grote and Robinson) could be reduced through application of the synthetic pheromone of the PTB, (Z,Z)-3,13-octadecadien-1-ol acetate (Z,Z-ODDA), at 92% isomeric purity. The pheromone was released into the air of peach orchard test plots with hanging laminated plastic dispensers or hollow fiber dispensers in the trees and by aerial dispersal of microcapsules containing a solution of the lure. Results showed that all formulations ofZ, Z-ODDA reduced trap catches of both PTB and LPTB in treated plots relative to catches in traps in untreated plots. In one air permeation experiment, three types of laminated dispensers and one type of hollow fiber dispenser each reduced trap catch of PTB by 93-100% and of LPTB by 75-95%. In a separate test, two formulations of microencapsulatedZ,Z-ODDA did not reduce trap catch of male PTB as effectively as the laminated dispenser; results for LPTB were similar for both the dispensers and microcapsules. Catches of male PTB moths in traps baited with laminated and or fiber pheromone dispensers containing ODDA (94∶6%Z,Z∶E,Z) were not significantly different. LPTB male moths were also captured in these traps, the catches being dependent upon the initial pheromone loading and the type of dispensers.

Chemicals utilized by insects to foster host-parasite relationships (potentially useful for suppression of insect pests in an ecologically acceptable manner) were found in moth scales of Heliothis zea (Boddie) and shown to direct Trichogramma evanescens Westwood to eggs of H. zea , which it then parasitized. Four chemicals comprising the major portion of the active principle in moth scales were isolated in pure form by column and gas chromatography and shown by gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric analysis to be docosane, tricosane, tetracosane, and penetacosane. The most active chemical, tricosane, elicited significant orientation and stimulated parasitization in both laboratory and small-field tests.

Reaction loops may be used in a gas Chromatographic system to help determine the chemical structure of compounds. Loops that retain or detain compounds with a certain functional group “subtract” these compounds and thereby indicate the presence of the functional group in unknown compounds. The performance of loops in “subtracting” alcohols, acids, aldehydes, ketones, epoxides, and a variety of other compounds was studied to amplify the usefulness of this technique. A simplified version of carbon-skeleton chromatography was also shown to be useful for analysis of polar or high molecular weight compounds (C12 or higher).

The sex attractant emitted by virgin female Porthetria Dispar (L.) to attract the male moth for mating has been identified and synthesized recently. This compound, disparlure, has been found active, and when suitably formulated, levels as low as 0.001 μg/trap are active even after 3 months aging in the field. Activity of disparlure is extended by combining it with volatile or nonvolatile keepers. Trioctanoin is a satisfactory keeper of the nonvolatile type, and formulations with it, e.g. 5 mg with 1 μg disparlure, are highly effective for at least 3 months and are far more attractive and persistent in survey traps than the presently used extracts of virgin females. Triolein and 2 other unsaturated compounds appear to degrade disparlure, especially low lure concentrations. Several keepers of the volatile type provide good activity hut are not so suitable for use in survey traps. Volatility of disparlure lies between the volatilities of methyl palmitate and 1,2-epoxyoctadecane. Effects of factors such as lure concentrations, configuration of the epoxide, keepers and keeper concentration, aging of disparlure formulations, trap capacity, and degree of insect infestation on moth captures are discussed. Disparlure did not become repellent at levels up to 1000 μg /trap. With light infestations of the moth, log-log plots of trap captures vs. concentration of attractant per trap were linear. An ether related to disparlure was synthesized and was slightly active. Cis and trans gyptol and gyplure and ricinoleyl alcohol were purified, and the pure compounds and impurities were tested; some of the materials are slightly active. None of the tested compounds or impurities masked the activity of disparlure significantly. The natural extract was studied also. After epoxidation, the hydrocarbon fraction of the natural extract of female tips was very active and persistent when mixed with trioctanoin. Addition of natural tip extract to disparlure depressed catches.

The finding that gyplure and gyptol, ( cis -7-hexadecene-1,10-diol 10-acetate), were ineffective as attractants of male Porthetria dispar (L.) in field evaluations has led the U. S. Department of Agriculture to resume use of the natural attractant in survey traps and has reopened the investigation to determine the structure of the gypsy moth sex attractant. When chemical and other tests on the purified natural attractant indicated that it might be an epoxide, the crude extract was treated with m -chloroper-benzoic acid on the supposition that additional attractant might be generated from an olefinic precursor. The treatment greatly increased the activity of the extract, and this increase in activity was traced to the hydrocarbon fraction. Conditions were then determined for maximum enhancement of activity on a large scale. The activity of a 385,000-tip lot of extract from insects field collected in Spain in 1969 was raised 11-fold, while the activity of a small lot of a much more potent extract from laboratory-reared insects was raised 2-fold. The chemical treatment should greatly decrease the high cost of preparing attractant for survey traps.

The sex attractant of Porthetria dispar (L.), called disparlure, was isolated from a crude fraction of 78,000 abdominal tips of the female moth. Activity of the fraction was monitored by both field and laboratory bioassay. After partial purification of the crude fraction by saponilication and column and thin-layer chromatography (TLC), the attractant was characterized by thin-layer and gas chromatographic tests as an epoxide with 18-20 carbon atoms. Because insufficient attractant was available, all attempt to find and isolate an olefin precursor of the epoxide was made. and it proved successful. The olefin was identified by microozonolysis, TLC, micro hydrogenation, and mass spectral analysis as 2-methyl- cis -7-octadecene. The sex attractant is therefore cis 7,8-epoxy-2-methyloctadccane. It was synthesized in 4 steps with an overall yield of 60%. The synthetic compounds were identical to the natural precursor and sex lurc by combined gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The sex attractant was very active in field tests. Eight compounds closely related to disparlure were synthesized, but they were far less active than disparlure.

Plastic laminate dispensers and other controlled-release devices provide a useful method for dispensing insect pheromones in field programs. Hercon® laminate dispensers containing disparlure, the sex attractant of the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.), were used in an emission rate study to determine the effect of temperature, air flow, dispenser thickness and size, lure content, and aging period. The release rate was found to be proportional to the rate of air flow and to the lure content; the log of the rate was proportional to 1/T in a temperature study. An increase in dispenser thickness produced a corresponding reduction in the emission rate. The lure diffused not only through the laminate surfaces but also out of the perimeter edge. The loss of lure from different sizes of dispensers over a 120-day period ranged from 38 to 68% of that originally present.

(Z)-11-Hexadecen-1-ol (Z11-16:OH) was isolated from extract of the sex pheromone gland of female Xylomyges curialis Grote (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and identified by gas chromatographic and by gas chromatography-mass spectrometric analysis of the parent compound, the acetate derivative, and the ozonolysis product of the acetate derivative. No other unsaturated alcohols, acetates, or aldehydes could be detected in the extract. In field tests, traps baited with synthetic Z11-16:OH effectively captured males.

Field trials were conducted in 1973 with traps baited with ( Z )-8-dodecenyl acetate, the synthetic sex pheromone of the oriental fruit moth, Grapholitha molesta (Busck), to determine factors influencing captures of male oriental fruit moths and lesser appleworm, G. prunivora (Walsh). Of the 9 trap designs tested, Pherocon 1CP Trap®, with the bottom and top sections closed, caught the most moths. Traps at 3 ft caught significantly more oriental fruit moths and lesser appleworms than at the other 4 heights tested. Enhancement of attraction of the oriental fruit moth and lesser appleworm was increased with addition of a small percentage (2.5–7.5%) of E isomer to the pheromone. Of 9 concentrations of pheromone + synergist/tree, 2 μl of pheromone + 8 μl synergist caught the most moths. A micro-encapsulated formulation of pheromone + synergist suppressed trap catches of male oriental fruit moths for 2 weeks in a peach orchard treated with 2 g of pheromone + 6 g dodecyl alcohol/acre.

Maximum captures of male oriental fruit moths (OFM), Grapholitha molesta (Busck), in sticky traps were obtained with a blend of 95% ( Z )-8-dodecenyl acetate (DDA) and 5% ( E )-8- DDA plus dodecyl alcohol; however, captures of male pecan bud moths (PBM), Gretchena bolliana (Slingerland), were unaffected by alterations in the amount (from 0 to 20%) of the E -isomer. The hours of maximum response of OFM (5–8 pm) to ( Z )-8-DDA differed markedly from the hours of maximum response of PBM (10 pm-3 am) but were about the same as those of the lesser appleworm (LAW), Grapholitha prunivora (Walsh). Response to pheromone traps at 4 different heights indicated that captures of PBM were greatest when traps were 9 m above ground, but more OFM and LAW responded when they were 1 m above ground. Air-permeation trials with microencapsulated ( Z )-8-DDA applied at rates of 2 and 8 g lure/acre, suppressed response of male OFM to traps baited with virgin females. On the basis of captures of released-marked males in the untreated orchard, suppression was 77–98% in the orchard treated with 8 g lure/acre for the 5 wk after treatment. The recapture rate of the released males by pheromone traps in the untreated orchard was quite high (69%).

( Z )-11-Hexadecenal was identified from heptane washes of ovipositors of female artichoke plume moths, Platyptilia carduidactyla (Riley), by using glass open-tubular capillary chromatography, combined capillary chromatography-mass spectrometry, and microchemical degradation. The washes were free of detectable quantities of any other pheromone-like compounds (C12 to C18 olefinic acetates, alcohols, or aldehydes). In the field, insect traps baited with 100 μg of ( Z )-11-hexadecenal captured artichoke plume moth males at a greater rate than traps baited with virgin female moths. The chemical and field results together indicate that the long-range female sex pheromone of this species is a single component.