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Aim: To develop a simple clinical decision rule (CDR) to identify people with knee osteoarthritis who are likely or unlikely to benefit from bone marrow aspirate concentrate (BMAC) injection. Materials & methods: A total of 92 people with clinical and radiographic evidence of refractory knee osteoarthritis received a single intra-articular (IA) BMAC injection. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to determine which combination of risk factors predicted BMAC responsiveness. A responder was defined as a person whose knee pain improved more than 15% from baseline 6 months post procedure. Results: The CDR demonstrated that those with lower pain levels, or high pain levels with previous surgery, could be predicted to benefit from a single IA BMAC injection. Conclusion: A simple CDR containing three variables predicted responsiveness to a single IA knee BMAC injection with high accuracy. Further validation of the CDR is required prior to routine use in clinical practice.

Objective Autonomic nervous system dysfunction has been implicated in chronic whiplash-associated disorder (WAD). However, the relationship between autonomic variables (e.g., resting heart rate and blood pressure) and clinical factors in chronic WAD is not well understood. This study sought to examine the associations between resting heart rate, resting blood pressure, pain processing and psychological variables in chronic WAD and in pain-free controls. Design Secondary analysis of a cross-sectional study. Setting University clinical research laboratory. Subjects Thirty-six people with chronic WAD Grade II (mean [SD] age 40.1 [14.6] years, 28 females) and 25 pain-free controls (35.6 [13.0] years, 17 females). Methods Participants had resting heart rate, systolic and diastolic blood pressure measured. Pain processing measures comprised: (i) pain pressure threshold at the cervical spine, hand and leg, (ii) temporal summation at the cervical spine and hand, and (iii) conditioned pain modulation. Psychological outcomes included measures of kinesiophobia, pain catastrophizing and post-traumatic stress symptoms. Correlations between autonomic variables, pain processing and psychological variables were determined (P Results No significant correlations between autonomic and pain processing variables, or autonomic and psychological variables were found in the chronic WAD group. In the control group, diastolic blood pressure was positively correlated with cervical spine pressure pain threshold (r = 0.53, P = .007). Conclusions An association between blood pressure and pain sensitivity was observed in the control group but not the chronic WAD group. Such an association appears to be disrupted in chronic WAD, which may infer involvement of autonomic pathways in the pathophysiology of this condition.

Mucosal-associated invariant T cells are activated following the recognition of bacterial antigens presented by the major histocompatibility complex class I-related molecule (MR1). Previous metagenomics data showed that MR1−/− knock-out (KO) mice had distinct microbiota and displayed a resistance to Clostridioides difficile (CDI) colonization vs. wild-type (WT) mice. In the present study, LC/MS-based untargeted metabolomics are applied to evaluate the changes in metabolic activities, in accordance with the changes in gut microbiota caused by cefoperazone (Cef) treatment. Adult C57Bl/6J WT and MR1−/− KO mice were given sterile drinking water or spiked with 0.5 mg/mL Cef ad libitum for five days. Fecal pellets were collected daily, and both small intestinal and cecal contents were harvested at sacrifice. The PLS-DA score plots of the metabolomic data indicate that the microbiota is relatively less disturbed by Cef treatment in KO mice, which is consistent with the metagenomics data. The most noticeable differences in the metabolome of KO and WT mice were the increases in carbohydrates in the WT mice, but not in the KO mice. Metabolic functional biomarkers were identified through the correlation analysis of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and riboflavin. These detected metabolic functional biomarkers could provide information complementary to metagenomics data.

Mucosal associated invariant T-cells (MAIT cells) are activated following recognition of bacterial antigens (riboflavin intermediates) presented on major histocompatibility complex class I-related molecule (MR1). Our previous study showed that MR1-/- knock-out (KO) mice (lacking MAIT cells) harbor a unique microbiota that is resistant to antibiotic disruption and Clostridioides difficile colonization. While we have characterized the microbiota of this mouse strain, changes in global metabolic activity in these KO mice have not been assessed. Here, LC/MS-based untargeted metabolomics was applied to investigate the differences in the metabolome, specifically in the bile acid (BA) profile of wild-type (WT) and MR1-/- KO mice, as well as how antibiotics change these profiles. BA changes were evaluated in the intestinal content, cecum content, and stool samples from MR1&ndash, /&ndash, mice and WT mice treated with cefoperazone (Cef). Fecal pellets were collected daily and both intestinal and cecal contents were harvested at predetermined endpoints on day 0 (D0), day 1 (D1), day 3 (D3), and day 5 (D5). KO mice exhibited no changes in 6-hydroxymethyl-8-D-ribityllumazine (rRL-6-CH2OH, an MR1-restricted riboflavin derivative) in the stool samples at either time point vs. D0, while WT mice showed significant decreases in rRL-6-CH2OH in the stool samples on all treatment days vs. D0. Metabolomics analysis from cecal and stool samples showed that KO mice had more total BA intensity (KO/WT = ~1.7 and ~3.3 fold higher) than that from WT mice prior to Cef treatment, while the fold change difference (KO/WT = ~4.5 and ~4.4 fold) increased after five days of Cef treatment. Both KO and WT mice showed decreases in total BA intensity in response to Cef treatment, however, less dramatic decreases were present in KO vs. WT mice. Increases in taurocholic acid (TCA) intensity and decreases in deoxycholic acid (DCA) intensity in the stool samples from WT mice were associated with the depletion of certain gut bacteria, which was consistent with the previously reported microbiome data. Furthermore, the non-detected TCA and relatively higher DCA intensity in the KO mice might be related to Clostridioides difficile infection resistance, although this needs further investigation.

Clostridium difficile (Cd) infection (CDI) typically occurs after antibiotic usage perturbs the gut microbiota. Mucosa-associated invariant T cells (MAIT) are found in the gut and their development is dependent on Major histocompatibility complex-related protein 1 (MR1) and the host microbiome. Here we were interested in determining whether the absence of MR1 impacts resistance to CDI. To this end, wild-type (WT) and MR1-/- mice were treated with antibiotics and then infected with Cd spores. Surprisingly, MR1-/- mice exhibited resistance to Cd colonization. 16S rRNA gene sequencing of feces revealed inherent differences in microbial composition. This colonization resistance was transferred from MR1-/- to WT mice via fecal microbiota transplantation, suggesting that MR1-dependent factors influence the microbiota, leading to CDI susceptibility.

SUMMARYWe evaluated the QX200 Droplet Digital PCR (ddPCR™, Bio-Rad) system and protocols for the detection of the tick-borne pathogens Borrelia burgdorferi and Borrelia miyamotoi in Ixodes scapularis nymphs and adults collected from North Truro, Massachusetts. Preliminary screening by nested PCR determined positive infection levels of 60% for B. burgdorferi in these ticks. To investigate the utility of ddPCR as a screening tool and to calculate the absolute number of bacterial genome copies in an infected tick, we adapted previously reported TaqMan®-based qPCR assays for ddPCR. ddPCR proved to be a reliable means for detection and absolute quantification of control bacterial DNA with precision as low as ten spirochetes in an individual sample. Application of this method revealed the average carriage level of B. burgdorferi in infected I. scapularis nymphs to be 2291 spirochetes per nymph (range: 230–5268 spirochetes) and 51 179 spirochetes on average in infected adults (range: 5647–115 797). No ticks naturally infected with B. miyamotoi were detected. The ddPCR protocols were at least as sensitive to conventional qPCR assays but required fewer overall reactions and are potentially less subject to inhibition. Moreover, the approach can provide insight on carriage levels of parasites within vectors.

Mechanically ventilated surgical patients have a variety of bacterial flora that are often undetectable by traditional culture methods. The source of infection in many of these patients remains unclear. To address this clinical problem, the microbiome profile and host inflammatory response in bronchoalveolar lavage samples from the surgical intensive care unit were examined relative to clinical pathology diagnoses. The hypothesis was tested that clinical diagnosis of respiratory tract flora were similar to culture positive lavage samples in both microbiome and inflammatory profile. Bronchoalveolar lavage samples were collected in the surgical intensive care unit as standard of care for intubated individuals with a clinical pulmonary infection score of >6 or who were expected to be intubated for >48 hours. Cytokine analysis was conducted with the Bioplex Pro Human Th17 cytokine panel. The microbiome of the samples was sequenced for the 16S rRNA region using the Ion Torrent. Microbiome diversity analysis showed the culture-positive samples had the lowest levels of diversity and culture negative with the highest based upon the Shannon-Wiener index (culture positive: 0.77 ± 0.36, respiratory tract flora: 2.06 ± 0.73, culture negative: 3.97 ± 0.65). Culture-negative samples were not dominated by a single bacterial genera. Lavages classified as respiratory tract flora were more similar to the culture-positive in the microbiome profile. A comparison of cytokine expression between groups showed increased levels of cytokines (IFN-g, IL-17F, IL-1B, IL-31, TNF-a) in culture-positive and respiratory tract flora groups. Culture-positive samples exhibited a more robust immune response and reduced diversity of bacterial genera. Lower cytokine levels in culture-negative samples, despite a greater number of bacterial species, suggest a resident nonpathogenic bacterial community may be indicative of a normal pulmonary environment. Respiratory tract flora samples were most similar to the culture-positive samples and may warrant classification as culture-positive when considering clinical treatment.

Clostridium difficile is an anaerobic spore-forming human pathogen that is the leading cause of nosocomial infectious diarrhea worldwide. Germination of infectious spores is the first step in the development of a C. difficile infection (CDI) after ingestion and passage through the stomach. This study investigates the specific conditions that facilitate C. difficile spore germination, including the following: location within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, pH, temperature, and germinant concentration. The germinants that have been identified in culture include combinations of bile salts and amino acids or bile salts and calcium, but in vitro, these function at concentrations that far exceed normal physiological ranges normally found in the mammalian GI tract. In this work, we describe and quantify a previously unreported synergy observed when bile salts, calcium, and amino acids are added together. These germinant cocktails improve germination efficiency by decreasing the required concentrations of germinants to physiologically relevant levels. Combinations of multiple germinant types are also able to overcome the effects of inhibitory bile salts. In addition, we propose that the acidic conditions within the GI tract regulate C. difficile spore germination and could provide a biological explanation for why patients taking proton pump inhibitors are associated with increased risk of developing a CDI., Clostridium difficile is a Gram-positive obligate anaerobe that forms spores in order to survive for long periods in the unfavorable environment outside a host. C. difficile is the leading cause of nosocomial infectious diarrhea worldwide. C. difficile infection (CDI) arises after a patient treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics ingests infectious spores. The first step in C. difficile pathogenesis is the metabolic reactivation of dormant spores within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract through a process known as germination. In this work, we aim to elucidate the specific conditions and the location within the GI tract that facilitate this process. Our data suggest that C. difficile germination occurs through a two-step biochemical process that is regulated by pH and bile salts, amino acids, and calcium present within the GI tract. Maximal germination occurs at a pH ranging from 6.5 to 8.5 in the terminal small intestine prior to bile salt and calcium reabsorption by the host. Germination can be initiated by lower concentrations of germinants when spores are incubated with a combination of bile salts, calcium, and amino acids, and this synergy is dependent on the availability of calcium. The synergy described here allows germination to proceed in the presence of inhibitory bile salts and at physiological concentrations of germinants, effectively decreasing the concentrations of nutrients required to initiate an essential step of pathogenesis. IMPORTANCE Clostridium difficile is an anaerobic spore-forming human pathogen that is the leading cause of nosocomial infectious diarrhea worldwide. Germination of infectious spores is the first step in the development of a C. difficile infection (CDI) after ingestion and passage through the stomach. This study investigates the specific conditions that facilitate C. difficile spore germination, including the following: location within the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, pH, temperature, and germinant concentration. The germinants that have been identified in culture include combinations of bile salts and amino acids or bile salts and calcium, but in vitro, these function at concentrations that far exceed normal physiological ranges normally found in the mammalian GI tract. In this work, we describe and quantify a previously unreported synergy observed when bile salts, calcium, and amino acids are added together. These germinant cocktails improve germination efficiency by decreasing the required concentrations of germinants to physiologically relevant levels. Combinations of multiple germinant types are also able to overcome the effects of inhibitory bile salts. In addition, we propose that the acidic conditions within the GI tract regulate C. difficile spore germination and could provide a biological explanation for why patients taking proton pump inhibitors are associated with increased risk of developing a CDI.

Clostridium difficile is an anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium capable of colonizing the gastrointestinal tract of humans following disruption of the normal microbiota, typically from antibiotic therapy for an unrelated infection. With approximately 500,000 confirmed infections leading to 29,000 deaths per year in the United States, C. difficile infection (CDI) is an urgent public health threat. We previously determined that C. difficile survives in up to 3% oxygen. Low levels of oxygen are present in the intestinal tract, with the higher concentrations being associated with the epithelial cell surface. Additionally, antibiotic treatment, the greatest risk factor for CDI, increases the intestinal oxygen concentration. Therefore, we hypothesized that the C. difficile genome encodes mechanisms for survival during oxidative stress. Previous data have shown that cysteine desulfurases involved in iron-sulfur cluster assembly are involved in protecting bacteria from oxidative stress. In this study, deletion of a putative cysteine desulfurase (Cd630_12790/IscS2) involved in the iron-sulfur cluster (Isc) system caused a severe growth defect in the presence of 2% oxygen. Additionally, this mutant delayed colonization in a conventional mouse model of CDI and failed to colonize in a germfree model, which has higher intestinal oxygen levels. These data imply an undefined role for this cysteine desulfurase in protecting C. difficile from low levels of oxygen in the gut.

Clostridium difficile (C. difficile) is an anaerobic gram-positive pathogen that is the leading cause of nosocomial bacterial infection globally. C. difficile infection (CDI) typically occurs after ingestion of infectious spores by a patient that has been treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics. While CDI is a toxin-mediated disease, transmission and pathogenesis are dependent on the ability to produce viable spores. These spores must become metabolically active (germinate) in order to cause disease. C. difficile spore germination occurs when spores encounter bile salts and other co-germinants within the small intestine, however, the germination signaling cascade is unclear. Here we describe a signaling role for Ca2+ during C. difficile spore germination and provide direct evidence that intestinal Ca2+ coordinates with bile salts to stimulate germination. Endogenous Ca2+ (released from within the spore) and a putative AAA+ ATPase, encoded by Cd630_32980, are both essential for taurocholate-glycine induced germination in the absence of exogenous Ca2+. However, environmental Ca2+ replaces glycine as a co-germinant and circumvents the need for endogenous Ca2+ fluxes. Cd630_32980 is dispensable for colonization in a murine model of C. difficile infection and ex vivo germination in mouse ileal contents. Calcium-depletion of the ileal contents prevented mutant spore germination and reduced WT spore germination by 90%, indicating that Ca2+ present within the gastrointestinal tract plays a critical role in C. difficile germination, colonization, and pathogenesis. These data provide a biological mechanism that may explain why individuals with inefficient intestinal calcium absorption (e.g., vitamin D deficiency, proton pump inhibitor use) are more prone to CDI and suggest that modulating free intestinal calcium is a potential strategy to curb the incidence of CDI., Author summary The anaerobic, spore-forming bacterium Clostridium difficile (C. difficile) is a prominent pathogen in hospitals worldwide and the leading cause of nosocomial diarrhea. Numerous risk factors are associated with C. difficile infections (CDIs) including: antibiotics, advanced age, vitamin D deficiency, and proton pump inhibitors. Antibiotic use disrupts the intestinal microbiota allowing for C. difficile to colonize, however, why these other risk factors increase CDI incidence is unclear. Notably, deficient intestinal calcium absorption (i.e., increased calcium levels) is associated with these risk factors. In this work, we investigate the role of calcium in C. difficile spore germination. C. difficile spores are the infectious particles and they must become metabolically active (germinate) to cause disease. Here, we show that calcium is required for C. difficile germination, specifically activating the key step of cortex hydrolysis, and that this calcium can be derived from either within the spore or the environment. We also demonstrate that intestinal calcium is required for efficient spore germination in vivo, suggesting that intestinal concentrations of other co-germinants are insufficient to induce C. difficile germination. Collectively, these data provide a mechanism that explains the strong clinical correlations between increased intestinal calcium levels and risk of CDI.

The examination of the pulmonary microbiome in patients with non-chronic disease states has not been extensively examined. Traditional culture based screening methods are often unable to identify bacteria from bronchoalveolar lavage samples. The advancement of next-generation sequencing technologies allows for a culture-independent molecular based analysis to determine the microbial composition in the lung of this patient population. For this study, the Ion Torrent PGM system was used to assess the microbial complexity of culture negative bronchoalveolar lavage samples. A group of samples were identified that all displayed high diversity and similar relative abundance of bacteria. This group consisted of Hydrogenophaga, unclassified Bacteroidetes, Pedobacter, Thauera, and Acinetobacter. These bacteria may be representative of a common non-pathogenic pulmonary microbiome associated within this population of patients.

Free-living amoebae of the Acanthamoeba species are the causative agent of Acanthamoeba keratitis (AK), a sight-threatening corneal infection that causes severe pain and a characteristic ring-shaped corneal infiltrate. Innate immune responses play an important role in resistance against AK. The aim of this study is to determine if Toll-like receptors (TLRs) on corneal epithelial cells are activated by Acanthamoeba, leading to initiation of inflammatory responses in the cornea. Human corneal epithelial (HCE) cells constitutively expressed TLR1, TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, and TLR9 mRNA, and A. castellanii upregulated TLR4 transcription. Expression of TLR1, TLR2, TLR3, and TLR9 was unchanged when HCE cells were exposed to A. castellanii. IL-8 mRNA expression was upregulated in HCE cells exposed to A. castellanii. A. castellanii and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced significant IL-8 production by HCE cells as measured by ELISA. The percentage of total cells positive for TLR4 was higher in A. castellanii stimulated HCE cells compared to unstimulated HCE cells. A. castellanii induced upregulation of IL-8 in TLR4 expressing human embryonic kidney (HEK)-293 cells, but not TLR3 expressing HEK-293 cells. TLR4 neutralizing antibody inhibited A. castellanii-induced IL-8 by HCE and HEK-293 cells. Clinical strains but not soil strains of Acanthamoeba activated TLR4 expression in Chinese hamster corneas in vivo and in vitro. Clinical isolates but not soil isolates of Acanthamoeba induced significant (P< 0.05) CXCL2 production in Chinese hamster corneas 3 and 7 days after infection, which coincided with increased inflammatory cells in the corneas. Results suggest that pathogenic species of Acanthamoeba activate TLR4 and induce production of CXCL2 in the Chinese hamster model of AK. TLR4 may be a potential target in the development of novel treatment strategies in Acanthamoeba and other microbial infections that activate TLR4 in corneal cells.

Recent advances in molecular technology have facilitated a more thorough investigation of the human microbiome. These developments have allowed examination of associations between disease states and a person’s microbiome. While the majority of scientific literature has been focused on the microbial flora in the intestines, attention has recently been directed at the pulmonary microbiome and chronic disease states. Of particular interest is the microbiome’s effect on mechanical ventilation in trauma patients, where ventilator-associated pneumonia leads to significantly increased mortality rates. However, within the trauma population, many patients that exhibit the clinical symptoms of a pulmonary infection fail to culture or exhibit only “normal respiratory tract flora.” Herein, we discuss the current state of pulmonary microbiome research, risk factors, and future avenues of research involving the pulmonary microbiome as it relates to trauma patients.