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Progress towards analysing transitions between steady states demands improvements in time-resolved imaging, both for fundamental research and for applications in information technology. Transmission electron microscopy is a powerful technique for investigating the atomic structure, chemical composition and electromagnetic properties of materials with high spatial resolution and precision. However, the extraction of information about dynamic processes in the ps time regime is often not possible without extensive modification to the instrument while requiring careful control of the operation conditions to not compromise the beam quality. Here, we avoid these drawbacks by combining a delay line detector with continuous illumination in a transmission electron microscope. We visualize the gyration of a magnetic vortex core in real space and show that magnetization dynamics up to frequencies of 2.3 GHz can be resolved with down to ∼122ps temporal resolution by studying the interaction of an electron beam with a microwave magnetic field. In the future, this approach promises to provide access to resonant dynamics by combining high spatial resolution with sub-ns temporal resolution., Ultramicroscopy, 233

Journal of synchrotron radiation 28(6), 1891 - 1908 (2021). doi:10.1107/S1600577521010511, The small time gaps of synchrotron radiation in conventional multi-bunch mode (100-500 MHz) or laser-based sources with high pulse rate (similar to 80 MHz) are prohibitive for time-of-flight (ToF) based photoelectron spectroscopy. Detectors with time resolution in the 100ps range yield only 20-100 resolved time slices within the small time gap. Here we present two techniques of implementing efficient ToF recording at sources with high repetition rate. A fast electron-optical beam blanking unit with GHz bandwidth, integrated in a photoelectron momentum microscope, allows electron-optical 'pulse-picking' with any desired repetition period. Aberration-free momentum distributions have been recorded at reduced pulse periods of 5 MHz (at MAXII) and 1.25 MHz (at BESSYII). The approach is compared with two alternative solutions: a bandpass pre-filter (here a hemispherical analyzer) or a parasitic four-bunch island-orbit pulse train, coexisting with the multi-bunch pattern on the main orbit. Chopping in the time domain or bandpass pre-selection in the energy domain can both enable efficient ToF spectroscopy and photoelectron momentum microscopy at 100-500 MHz synchrotrons, highly repetitive lasers or cavity-enhanced high-harmonic sources. The high photon flux of a UV-laser (80 MHz, Published by Wiley-Blackwell, [S.l.]

Brief treatment and crisis intervention 21(1), 013017 (2019). doi:10.1088/1367-2630/aaf4cd, Photoemission-intensity distributions $I_{RCP/LCP}(E_{B}, k )$ measured for right- and left-circularly polarized soft x-rays revealed a large circular dichroism in angular distribution (CDAD) in the 4D parameter space ($E_B$ binding energy, $k$ momentum vector). Full-field k-imaging combined with time-of-flight energy recording at a high-brilliance soft x-ray beamline allowed mapping the CDAD in the bulk Brillouin zone of tungsten and the entire d-band complex within a few hours. CDAD-asymmetries are very high (up to 90%), persist throughout the whole photon-energy range (300–1300 eV) and show a pronounced dependence on momentum k and binding energy $E_B$, visualized as movies or sequences of cuts through the 4D object. One-step photoemission calculations for the same photon energies show fair agreement with the measured results. In addition to the requirement of a 'handed' experimental geometry, known from previous experiments on adsorbates and surface states, we find an anti-symmetric behavior of the CDAD with respect to two bulk mirror planes. A new symmetry condition along the perpendicular momentum $k_z$ makes CDAD a valuable tool for an unambiguous identification of high-symmetry planes in direct transitions in the periodic zone scheme. Technically, the method provides a circular polarimeter for soft, tender and hard x-rays., Published by Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford

We demonstrate the feasibility of coincidence measurements in a conventional transmission electron microscope, revealing the temporal correlation between electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy events. We make use of a delay line detector with picosecond time resolution attached to a modified EELS spectrometer. We demonstrate that coincidence between both events, related to the excitation and de-excitation of atoms in a crystal, provides added information not present in the individual EELS or EDX spectra. In particular, the method provides EELS with a significantly suppressed or even removed background, overcoming the many difficulties with conventional parametric background fitting as it uses no assumptions on the shape of the background, requires no user input and does not suffer from counting noise originating from the background signal. This is highly attractive, especially when low concentrations of elements need to be detected in a matrix of other elements., Comment: The following article has been submitted to Applied Physics Letters

Scanning electron microscopy with polarization analysis is a powerful lab-based magnetic imaging technique offering simultaneous imaging of multiple magnetization components and a very high spatial resolution. However, one drawback of the technique is the long required acquisition time resulting from the low inherent efficiency of spin detection, which has limited the applicability of the technique to certain quasi-static measurement schemes and materials with high magnetic contrast. Here we demonstrate the ability to improve the signal-to-noise ratio for particular classes of measurements involving periodic excitation of the magnetic structure via the implementation of a digital phase-sensitive detection scheme facilitated by the integration of a time-to-digital converter to the system. The modified setup provides dynamic imaging capabilities using selected time windows and finally full time-resolved imaging with a demonstrated time resolution of better than 2 ns.

New journal of physics 20(3), 033004 - (2018). doi:10.1088/1367-2630/aaa262, Photoelectron spectroscopy, especially at pulsed sources, is ultimately limited by the Coulomb interaction in the electron cloud, changing energy and angular distribution of the photoelectrons. A detailed understanding of this phenomenon is crucial for future pump–probe photoemission studies at (x-ray) free electron lasers and high-harmonic photon sources. Measurements have been performed for Ir(111) at hν =1000 eV with photon flux densities between ∼10$^2$ and 10$^4$ photons per pulse and μm$^2$ (beamline P04/PETRA III, DESY Hamburg), revealing space-charge induced energy shifts of up to 10 eV. In order to correct the essential part of the energy shift and restore the electron distributions close to the Fermi energy, we developed a semi-analytical theory for the space-charge effect in cathode-lens instruments (momentum microscopes, photoemission electron microscopes). The theory predicts a Lorentzian profile of energy isosurfaces and allows us to quantify the charge cloud from measured energy profiles. The correction is essential for the determination of the Fermi surface, as we demonstrate by means of ‘k-space movies’ for the prototypical high-Z material tungsten. In an energy interval of about 1 eV below the Fermi edge, the bandstructure can be restored up to substantial shifts of ∼7 eV. Scattered photoelectrons strongly enhance the inelastic background in the region several eV below $E_F$, proving that the majority of scattering events involves a slow electron. The correction yields a gain of two orders of magnitude in usable intensity compared with the uncorrected case (assuming a tolerable shift of 250 meV). The results are particularly important for future experiments at SASE-type free electron lasers, since the correction also works for strongly fluctuating (but known) pulse intensities., Published by IOP Publ., [Bad Honnef]

Ultramicroscopy 183, 19 - 29 (2017). doi:10.1016/j.ultramic.2017.06.025, The combination of momentum microscopy (high resolution imaging of the Fourier plane) with an imaging spin filter has recently set a benchmark in k-resolution and spin-detection efficiency. Here we show that the degree of parallelization can be further increased by time-of-flight energy recording. On the quest towards maximum information (in earlier work termed “complete” photoemission experiment) we have studied the prototypical high-Z fcc metal iridium. Large partial bandgaps and strong spin-orbit interaction lead to a sequence of spin-polarized surface resonances. Soft X-rays give access to the 4D spectral density function ρ (E$_B$,k$_x$,k$_y$,k$_z$) weighted by the photoemission cross section. The Fermi surface and all other energy isosurfaces, Fermi velocity distribution v$_F$(k$_F$), electron or hole conductivity, effective mass and inner potential can be obtained from the multi-dimensional array ρ by simple algorithms. Polarized light reveals the linear and circular dichroism texture in a simple manner and an imaging spin filter exposes the spin texture. One-step photoemission calculations are in fair agreement with experiment. Comparison of the Bloch spectral function with photoemission calculations uncovers that the observed high spin polarization of photoelectrons from bulk bands originates from the photoemission step and is not present in the initial state., Published by Elsevier Science, Amsterdam

Time-of-flight momentum microscopy is developed. It enables direct three-dimensional mapping of the topology of the Fermi surface, identification of electron and hole pockets, and quantification of Fermi velocity as a function of wavevector.

The present work enlightens the developments in time- and energy resolved photoemission electron microscopy over the past few years. We describe basic principles of the technique and demonstrate different applications. An energy- and time-filtering photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM) for real-time spectroscopic imaging can be realized either by a retarding field or hemispherical energy analyzer or by using time-of-flight optics with a delay line detector. The latter method has the advantage of no data loss at all as all randomly incoming particles are measured not only by position but also by time. This is of particular interest for pump–probe experiments in the femtosecond and attosecond time scale where space charge processes drastically limit the maximum number of photoemitted electrons per laser pulse. This work focuses particularly on time-of-flight analysis using a novel delay line detector. Time and energy resolved PEEM instruments with delay line detectors enable 4D imaging (x, y, Δt, EKin) on a true counting basis. This allows a broad range of applications from real-time observation of dynamic phenomena at surfaces to fs time-of-flight spectro-microscopy and even aberration correction. By now, these time-of-flight analysis instruments achieve intrinsic time resolutions of 108 ps absolute and 13.5 ps relative. Very high permanent measurement speeds of more than 4 million events per second in random detection regimes have been realized using a standard USB2.0 interface. By means of this performance, the time-resolved PEEM technique enables to display evolutions of spatially resolved (

Using a photoemission electron microscope we determined magnetic stray fields at the edges of permalloy (Ni80Fe20) particles. X-ray magnetic dichroism was used for visualization of magnetic domains. The values of the stray fields were deduced from the deflection of electrons in the image due to the Lorentz force. The stray fields are responsible for the magnetic interaction of adjacent particles with distances much larger than the thickness. The measured magnetic stray field is about 0.023 T for rectangular particles with a thickness of 30 nm and lateral sizes of tens of microns.

Being already well established as a versatile technique for high-resolution static magnetic domain imaging, X-ray photoemission electron microscopy (XPEEM) is now also capturing the field of time-resolved magnetic investigations. Using appropriate operation modes at synchrotron radiation sources, a time resolution of 10 ps and less can be achieved in recent magnetodynamics studies, giving access even to phenomena involving precessional processes.

The response of multidomain flux-closure structures (Landau states) in micrometer-scale magnetic thin-film elements upon fast magnetic field pulses leads to the excitation of magnetic eigenmodes and to short-lived domain patterns that do not occur in quasi-static remagnetisation. Such transient spatio-temporal patterns and particular detail features are discussed. Examples are presented for permalloy platelets of various shapes and sizes. Dynamic series of domain patterns with variable delay between field pulse and photon pulse (synchrotron radiation) have been taken using stroboscopic XMCD-PEEM. Precessional remagnetisation starts at the domain boundaries. The damped precessional motion propagates into the domains magnetised perpendicular to the field pulse. Further, an apparent dynamical broadening of domain boundaries, the formation of transient vortices and domain walls as well as the fast formation of blocking patterns are discussed. An important feature is the action of the demagnetising field that develops via the damped precessional motion of the magnetisation on the nanosecond time scale. The effective field is constituted by the sum of the instantaneous external pulse field and the delayed response of the demagnetising field.

Extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) at 13.5 nm is the next generation lithography technique capable of printing sub-50 nm structures. With decreasing feature sizes to be printed, the requirements for the lithography mask also become more stringent in terms of defect sizes and densities that are still acceptable and the development of lithography optics has to go along with the development of new mask defect inspection techniques that are fast and offer high resolution (preferable in the range of the minimum feature size) at the same time. We report on the development and experimental results of a new 'at wavelength' full-field imaging technique for defect inspection of multilayer mask blanks for EUV lithography. Our approach uses a photoemission electron microscope (PEEM) in a normal incidence illumination mode at 13 nm to image the photoelectron emission induced by the EUV wave field on the multilayer mask blank surface. We show that by these means, buried defects in the multilayer stack can be probed down to a lateral size of 50 nm, which was the smallest pre-defined structure size under study so far. The PEEMs spatial resolution has been proven to be as small as 29 nm edge slope width in measurements with 250 nm radiation. Therefore, the capability of this technique for actinic measurements at 13 nm radiation is anticipated to be well below 50 nm. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

We report morphologic changes of metallic surfaces at the onset of ablation, starting from gentle ablation to the emergence of ablation craters. The evolution of both observed melting zones and of ablation craters therein are investigated in dependence of the ablation laser fluence for nanosecond ultraviolet laser pulses. Further, consequences of crater formation for cluster synthesis within the released atomic vapor are pointed out.

We present recent results of time-resolved X-ray photoemission electron microscopy (TR-XPEEM) investigations on magnetic systems. Our studies of microstructured permalloy particles employ a magnetic pump XPEEM probe approach. The stroboscopic experiments feature a time resolution of Δ τ ≤ 130 ps and yield magnetic domain images with a surprising richness of details. We observe a strong influence of incoherent magnetization rotation processes, which lead to complicated transient domain structures with a blocked relaxation behavior.

Photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM) was exploited to observe the dynamics in local field distributions on microstrip-line devices with a best time resolution of 133 ps. A delayline detector system served as imaging unit capable of a time resolving data acquisition and processing. The setup can be operated at the resolution limit of the PEEM of about 20 nm while a continuously illuminating UV-lamp excites the photoelectrons in threshold photoemission. A pulsed photon source is not needed to obtain time resolved images, the time reference of the data acquisition was taken by a periodic signal (clock, here typ. 100 MHz) in phase with the pulse pattern applied to the microstrip-line device. Ultra-short current pulses passing the microstrip-line are associated with local changes of the magnetic field at the device surface and with a fast propagation of the electrical potential as well. The photoelectron imaging is immediately responding to small local field distortions due to the small kinetic energy of the electrons escaping from the surface. Thus, local field distortions can be detected as temporal changes between the 133 ps wide image-slices which are sorted by time in reference to the clock signal.

Fast magnetization processes in a microstructured permalloy ring with 80 µm o.d. and 30 nm thickness have been observed by photoemission electron microscopy exploiting x-ray magnetic circular dichroism as the magnetic contrast mechanism. As a high speed probe we employed synchrotron radiation pulses at the ESRF (Grenoble) operated in 16-bunch mode, yielding photon pulses of 105 ps FWHM with a period of 176 ns. Fast magnetic field pulses have been generated by means of current pulses through coplanar waveguides with the magnetic structure being lithographically prepared on their surface. A stroboscopic pump–probe set-up with a variable time delay between the field pulse and photon pulse allowed us to take snapshots of the dynamic response of the magnetic domain structure. We observed coherent magnetization rotation during the leading edge part of the field pulse, the formation of a characteristic domain pattern ('onion state') in the plateau region of the pulse and the fast formation of a striped domain pattern (incoherent magnetization rotation) during the trailing edge part of the field pulse. A numerical simulation confirmed essential features of the stroboscopic image series.

The dynamical evolution of magnetic stray fields has been investigated at the initial stage of magnetization reversal of a microstructured cobalt film (Co dots). Quantitative measurements of the domain magnetization and of the shift of the domain boundaries have been performed at 1 ns intervals. The measurements were performed using an emission electron microscope. The photoelectrons were excited from a sample using well-defined synchrotron-radiation pulses in single bunch operation mode (UE56/1-PGM at BESSY II, Berlin). The magnetization movement was initiated by an external magnetic field pulse, the pulse width being 8 ns. The magnetic field pulse was synchronized with the synchrotron single bunch radiation pulses. The lateral and time resolutions of the applied pulses were 50 nm and 500 ps, respectively.

Photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM) is widely used in combination with synchrotron sources as a powerful tool to observe chemical and magnetic properties of metal and semiconductor surfaces. Presently, the resolution limit of these instruments using soft-X-ray excitation is limited to about 50 nm, because of the chromatic aberation of the electron optics used. Various sophisticated approaches have thus been reported for enhancing the spatial resolution in photoemission electron microscopy. This work demonstrates the use of a simple imaging energy filter based on electron time-of-flight (ToF) selection. The spatial resolution could be improved dramatically, even though the instrument was optimized using a rather large contrast aperture of 50 μm. A special ( x , y , t )-resolving delayline detector was used as the imaging unit of this ToF-PEEM. It is operated in phase with the time structure of the synchrotron source, cutting time intervals from the raw image-forming data set in order to reduce the electron energy width contributing to the final images.

Time-of-flight photoemission electron microscopy was used to measure spatially resolved energy distribution curves of electrons emitted from Ag nanoparticle films with different mass thicknesses. Two-photon photoemission (2PPE) was induced by femtosecond laser pulse excitation with 3.1 eV photon energy and 200 fs pulse width. Regions of Ag nanoparticles with different average sizes and one region with a continuous 100 nm thick Ag film were deposited as a stepped wedge on a Si(1 1 1) substrate. Upon laser excitation the nanoparticle films exhibit a very high electron emission yield in the images, whereas the uncovered Si surface and the continuous Ag film are dark. The time-of-flight electron spectra obtained from the nanoparticle films are remarkably different from the spectra of the continuous film, well-known from literature. The nanoparticle spectra are up to a factor of 160 more intense than the spectrum of the continuous film. They reveal different widths, overall shape and a shift and broadening of the Fermi edge. The results are discussed in terms of Mie plasmon assisted two-photon photoemission of the nanoparticles.

Photoemission electron microscopy was used to visualize the motion of magnetic domains on a sub-nanosecond timescale. The technique exploits the imaging of magnetic domains using soft X-ray circular dichroism, with the special feature that the instrument utilizes a fast image acquisition system with intrinsic 125 ps time resolution. The overall time resolution used is about 500 ps. Different domains and domain movements have been observed in lithographically-produced Permalloy structures on a copper microstrip-line. A current pulse of I=0.5 A with rise times of about 300 ps switched the Permalloy islands from a Landau-Lifshitz type domain configuration into metastable s-state domain configurations. A pulse with opposite direction could reverse these s-type patterns. Photoemission electron microscopy was employed to observe the domain movements while repeating current pulses passed the microstrip-line. Using small unipolar amplitudes, only the cross-tie walls of the s-type patterns disappear and the pattern becomes “fuzzy”, e.g. the domain rims are not sharp and some domains change their size. Before the structure switches at a current threshold, it is more fluctuating as shown by significant differences in sharpness of the islands rim and the inter-domain boundaries show. The device behavior complicates when a bi-polar pulse is applied. Switching and oscillating of domains is observed in various manners, e.g. very tiny domains appear and unify again.

Owing to its parallel image acquisition, photoemission electron microscopy is well suited for real-time observation of fast processes on surfaces. Pulsed excitation sources like synchrotron radiation or lasers, fast electric pulsers for the study of magnetic switching, and/or time-resolved detection can be utilised. A standard approach also being used in light optical imaging is stroboscopic illumination of a periodic (or quasi-periodic) process. Using this technique, the time dependence of the magnetic field in a pulsed microstrip line has been imaged in real time exploiting Lorentz-type contrast. Similarly, the corresponding field-induced changes in the magnetisation of cobalt microstructures deposited on the microstrip line have been observed exploiting magnetic X-ray circular dichroism as a contrast mechanism. The experiment has been performed at the UE 56/1-PGM at BESSY II (Berlin) in the single-bunch mode.

The magnetic domain structure in Permalloy (Ni81Fe19) micropatterns (10?100??m) on NiO has been investigated by means of soft x-ray photoemission electron microscopy. The exchange anisotropy between the Ni81Fe19 patterns and the NiO layer results in the formation of complex domain structures which markedly differ from the simple Landau?Lifshitz configurations. The domain structures reflect the competition between the exchange anisotropy and the dipole?dipole interaction in a weakly coupled system. The observed domain structures change with the feature size, as the domain patterns lose complexity in the smaller structures.

The energy dependence of the circular dichroism in the angular distribution of photoelectrons (CDAD) was investigated from the shallow Cs 5p core levels. Cesium was prepared in a hexagonal ordered monolayer on W(110). The results are mainly influenced by scattering of the photoelectrons within the adlayer. At low energies, the behavior observed is described by means of a model that treats only the back-scattering of photoelectrons at the potential step between the adlayer and the substrate. It leads to a simple method determining the position of the monolayer with respect to the substrate. In this approach, the back-scattering model is matched with the measured energy dependence of the CDAD between hν = 21 eV and hν = 33 eV . This procedure yields reliable results already for a single observation angle of the photoelectron. The distance between cesium and tungsten was determined to be (2.2 ± 0.1) Å, which corresponds to the effective distance between the center of the adsorbed layer and the potential step between the layer and the substrate. Finally, the fitted result was proven to meet the complete angular dependence of the CDAD at different photon energies.

The angular dependence of the circular dichroism in photoemission from Pt(111) was investigated for excitation with VUV and soft X-ray radiation. VUV excitation was used to probe band structure and the circular dichroism for valence band emission. The measurements are compared to full relativistic single step photoemission calculations. XPS was used to investigate the circular dichroism in emission from the 4f core level. In this case, the dichroism is induced by photoelectron diffraction. First results from single step core level calculations are compared to the experimental observations.

It is shown that magnetic X-ray circular dichroism (MXCD) can be exploited in photoemission electron microscopy not only to visualize the domain structure of ferromagnets, but also to perform quantitative measurements of the stray magnetic fields at the domain boundaries. In the general situation, two MXCD images obtained at different extractor voltages are required. In specific cases, however, it suffices to consider a single image, if it is deformed by the stray magnetic fields compared to a known object geometry. The object geometry means its real shape, scratches or other defects. It is also possible to deposit a paramagnetic film structured in the form of stripes or a grid as a reference on the ferromagnetic sample being investigated.

A new approach for investigations of circular dichroism in the angular distribution of photoelectrons (CDAD) is presented. The image contrast using a photoemission line of a certain material is combined with imaging of the angular distribution pattern using a photoemission electron microscope (PEEM). CDAD can be used to investigate pure scattering information by means of the same instrument in microscopically selected regions on a surface. The experiment combines angle-resolved XPS imaging with the indirect mapping of the local environment of atoms by means of CDAD holography. In a conventional photoelectron diffraction or photoelectron holography experiment, it is necessary to move the sample and/or the detector; for example, a rotatable electron analyzer is used to map a full angular pattern. In the present approach, the diffraction plane is mapped for a certain kinetic energy of electrons in the backfocal plane. An imaging high-pass energy filter has been used in combination with the PEEM in order to acquire surface images and/or diffraction pattern maps. Direct photoemission from the W-4f core levels was observed at different photon polarization to obtain two images and two diffraction patterns of the W-4f emission line using light of opposite helicity. The agreement of calculations with the experimental result is satisfactory. This constitutes a very encouraging starting point for the use of the CDAD holography together with the PEEM technique providing mesoscopic and atomic as well as chemical resolution in microselected areas on solid surfaces.

The electronic surface states on Mo(110) have been investigated using time-of-flight momentum microscopy with synchrotron radiation (hν=35 eV). This novel angle-resolved photoemission approach yields a simultaneous acquisition of the E-vs-k spectral function in the full surface Brillouin zone and several eV energy interval. (kx,ky,EB)-maps with 3.4 A(-1) diameter reveal a rich structure of d-like surface resonances in the spin-orbit induced partial band gap. Calculations using the one-step model in its density matrix formulation predict an anomalous state with Dirac-like signature and Rashba spin texture crossing the bandgap at Γ¯ and EB=1.2 eV. The experiment shows that the linear dispersion persists away from the Γ¯-point in an extended energy- and k∥-range. Analogously to a similar state previously found on W(110) the dispersion is linear along H¯-Γ¯-H¯ and almost zero along N¯-Γ¯-N¯. The similarity is surprising since the spin-orbit interaction is 5 times smaller in Mo. A second point with unusual topology is found midway between Γ¯ and N¯. Band symmetries are probed by linear dichroism.

A method for microspectroscopy and energy-selective imaging using a special photoemission electron microscope (PEEM) is presented. A modified commercial PEEM was combined with a delay line device as x, y, t detector serving as the basic arrangement for spectromicroscopy. One can measure the time of flight of the electrons passing a drift section in order to analyze the energy distribution of photoelectrons in PEEM. The time of flight is referenced to the time structure of the synchrotron radiation from an electron storage ring. At electron kinetic energies of less than 20 eV within the drift region a spatial resolution of about 100 nm has been obtained. Fast counting electronics (instead of a camera) delivers an image for real-time monitoring on an oscilloscope screen or for image acquisition by a computer. A time resolution of about 500 ps has been obtained with the potential of further improvement. The spatial resolution of the delay line detector is about 50 μm in the image plane corresponding to 1000 ...

The magnetic microstructure and magnetic coupling phenomena in thin-film systems, relevant for applications in magneto-electronics, are investigated by means of photoemission electron microscopy. Element-selective magnetic information is obtained by exploiting magnetic circular dichroism in the soft X-ray regime. The domain shape and sizes found at the surface of antiferromagnetically coupled metallic multilayers indicate the presence of a ferromagnetic coupling contribution, presumably caused by a build-up of roughness during the growth process. The magnetic domain patterns in FeNi microstructures on sputtered NiO films reflect the presence of a local exchange anisotropy, causing the phenomenon of exchange biasing or pinning of the ferromagnetic layer.

The time structure of synchrotron radiation at BESSY I (Berlin) was utilised to operate a photoemission electron microscope in the time-of-flight mode. The electrons that are emitted from the sample surface with different energies are dispersed in a drift tube subsequent to the imaging optics. Two ways of fast image detection have been explored, a fast gated intensified CCD camera (800 ps gate time) and a special counting electronics in combination with a 3D (x,y,t)-resolving delay line detector ( time resolution ps). The latter device has a lateral resolution of about 50 μm in the image plane being equivalent to 1000 pixels along the image diagonal. An energy resolution of 400 meV has been achieved. The future potential of time-resolving photoemission microscopy is discussed.

The use of an imaging retarding field analyser attached to the FOCUS IS-PEEM is described. This kind of energy filter is a simple, powerful tool to obtain microspectra from areas of down to about 1 μm using (V)UV and X-ray excitation sources. First results of microspectroscopy measured by excitation with a laboratory as well as a synchrotron X-ray source are presented.

Pronounced temperature effects in angular resolved ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy from the (001) surface of the ternary heavy fermion compound CeNi 2 Ge 2 are presented. The measurements were performed on atomically clean and well-ordered thin films grown on a W(110) substrate. A strongly enhanced intensity at the Fermi edge ( ϵ F ) is observed at low-temperatures if the spectra are excited by means of HeI light ( hν =21.2 eV). In addition, the work function is dramatically increased with temperature, exhibiting an unusually high positive temperature coefficient of about 0.65 meV/K. The observed temperature dependency suggests a strong redistribution of the states near the Fermi-energy with increasing temperature. A simple model will be given that correlates the observed intensity changes at ϵ F with the change of the work function.

In the present study, spin polarisation and dichroism were investigated in angular resolved VUV photoemission ARUPS from magnetised as well as paramagnetic rare earth surfaces. Thin Gd(0001) films were prepared epitaxially on W(110). The photoelectrons were excited by polarised synchrotron radiation from the BESSY I synchrotron radiation source. A SPLEED detector attached to an electron spectrometer mounted on a single axis goniometer was used for angular resolved spin analysis. The main part of this work focused on the characteristic surface state of Gd(0001) which shows a splitting, as previously observed by linear magnetic dichroism and spin polarised photoemission. The spin analysis shows that the two observed states have opposite spin characters. Additionally, the non-magnetic circular dichroism suggests j =3/2 character for the surface state. The experimental findings are compared to atomic models and one-step photoemission calculations.

In various experiments it has been demonstrated that the circular dichroism in the angular distribution of photoelectrons (CDAD) is not only observed from oriented initial states (aligned adsorbed molecules or magnetised samples), but also arises as a consequence of the scattering of photoelectrons from the surrounding atoms in a solid or an adsorbate. In this work we will show first measurements performed at the SGM beamline of the Brazilian Synchrotron Light Source (LNLS) on a (4×1) superstructure of 1 ML RbO adsorbed on Pt(111). Measurements from the 4s core levels of Rb adsorbed at Pt(111) were also performed at the PM-III beamline at BESSY. The measured variations of the intensity and the CDAD with respect to the photon energy are interpreted in terms of photoelectron diffraction. The results will be used to discuss the possibility of photoelectron holography using circularly polarised light.

The dichroic effects of photoemission excited by polarised light depend on the angle of photon incidence. Measurements of the difference in the angle-resolved photoemission intensities from Cs 5p semi-corelevels excited by photons of opposite helicity, or of orthogonal linear polarisation are reported. It was thought that the dependence of dichroism on the angle of incidence cannot be described using equations omitting metal optics. A complete consideration of the vector potential of the exciting light is needed, including the phase shift between it's parallel and perpendicular components. The phase shift is produced by the complex index of refraction. Using the Fresnel equations for structureless media, one finds that the second and the third components of the Stokes vector both change their sign, if only the initial helicity or linear polarisation are reversed. The complex index of refraction of a Cs-covered W(110) surface is determined from measurements using the quantitative knowledge of the dichroism effects, that is, CDAD and LDAD.

Circular dichroism in the angular distribution of photoelectrons (CDAD) is not only observed from aligned initial states, but also as a consequence of the scattering of photoelectrons at the surrounding atoms in a solid or an adsorbate. Using the analytical result for the CDAD, we show that it is an integral transformation of the product of the angular momentum of the emitted electron and the Fourier-transformed scattering potential of the surrounding atoms. Therefore, we interpret the CDAD pattern as photoelectron-hologram. The real space distribution of atoms can be reconstructed by an inverse integral transformation of the CDAD pattern, which carries the full phase-information. We show for the case of emission from s-states, that a CDAD pattern, taken at only one kinetic energy , can be used for a three-dimensional reconstruction of the real space distribution of the atoms with a reasonable z -resolution.

We report on the dependence of dichroic photoemission excited by polarised light on the angle of photon incidence. We measured the difference in the angle-resolved photoemission intensities from Cs-5p semi-corelevels excited by photons of opposite helicity, known as CDAD and of orthogonal linear polarisation—LDAD. We found that the dependence of dichroism on the angle of incidence can not be described by the equations used in the photoemission model for free atomic states. A complex consideration of the parallel and perpendicular components of the vector potential of the exciting light is needed, including the phase shift between these components. The phase shift is produced by the complex index of refraction. Using the Fresnel-equations for structureless media, one finds that in CDAD measurements not only the third component of the Stokes vector is responsible for the differences in the excitation process, but also the second component and vice versa for LDAD. Both Stokes components change the sign if the initial helicity or linear polarisation is reversed resulting in an additional dichroism just of the other kind.

Polycrystalline C60 and Pentacene films grown on W(110) and Pt(111) have been studied in valence band photoemission using circularly polarised synchrotron radiation from BESSY with special emphasis on circular dichroism in photoemission. For thin films of C60, dichroic asymmetries of about 10% occur independent of the temperature and the substrate hinting that the rotation of the topmost layer is hindered even at room temperature. For Pentacene we found asymmetries up to 50% in the region of the σ-electrons. Moreover, we found for this molecule a dichroic asymmetry in normal emission, that is a forbidden geometry. This hints on adsorption with the molecules perpendicularly oriented at the surface. Doping the films with rubidium causes a filling of unoccupied electronic states in both molecules. In Pentacene all valence level binding energies are shifted depending on the amount of exposed Rb. For the Rb-doped C60 and C22H14 films a dichroism in emission from the Rb 4p signal occurs that is much stronger than in the case of pure, disordered Rb films at Pt(111) where the asymmetry almost vanishes. This hints on a high correlation of the Rb p-electrons in both materials that may not be neglected in investigations of the electronic structure.

Ultrathin layers of Gd and Nd epitaxially grown on W(110) have been investigated using linearly and circularly polarised light at the 6.5 m NIM beamline at the BESSY storage ring in Berlin. The high quality of the films was monitored by the sharp and dispersionless surface state just below the Fermi energy. The CDAD (circular dichroism in the angular distribution of photoelectrons) measurements showed strong effects in the surface states as well as in the valence bands. The LMDAD (linear magnetic dichroism in…) from Gd(0001) showed a small, but significant splitting of the surface state. This splitting can be reproduced by numerical one-step calculations based on spin-dependent surface barriers. The photon energy-dependent intensities as well as the magnetic dichroism could be explained qualitatively by calculations within an atomic model giving evidence of a Fano-type resonance.

We report on the dependence of dichroic photoemission excited by circularly polarised light on the angle of photon incidence. We measured the difference in the angle-resolved photoemission intensities from Cs 5p semi-core levels excited by photons of opposite helicity, which is known as CDAD. We found that the dependence of the measured differences on the angle of light incidence deviates strongly from the model of CDAD for free atoms, as expected. Using the Fresnel equations and a complex index of refraction, one finds that not only the third component but also the second component of the Stokes vector is responsible for the excitation process. Both Stokes components change sign if the initial helicity is reversed, resulting in an additional linear dichroism.

We investigated circular dichroism in photoemission from Kr and Xe adsorbed on Pt(111). A large CDAD has been observed in emission from the p states of both rare gases depending on the observation angle and the photon energy. Special interest was put on the CDAD in emission from the near-threshold region. Strong CDAD was found in constant final state mode spectra for very low kinetic energies of the photoelectrons. Our results show, that in a completed monolayer the Xe 5p states cannot be treated as atom-like.

We present recent results of time-resolved x-ray photoemission electron microscopy on permalloy microstructures. The stroboscopic experiments feature a time-resolution of Deltatauless than or equal to130 ps. We observe a strong influence of incoherent magnetization rotation processes, leading to a significant transient stray-field formation at the edges of the microstructure. (C) American Institute of Physics.

We present results of a direct imaging approach to visualize the dynamics of magnetic domains on the nanosecond scale. The experiments are carried out by means of an x-ray photoemission electron microscope (X-PEEM) in a stroboscopic mode and exploit the intrinsic time structure of the synchrotron radiation delivered by the storage ring facility ESRF (Grenoble). In this way we combine the high lateral resolution of a PEEM with a subnanosecond time resolution.

We investigated the adsorption of alkali metals an noble gases on transition metal surfaces. These serve as atom-like adsorbates to be comparable to calculations of the Circular Dichroism in the Angular Distribution of photoelectrons (CDAD) including backscattering at the substrate surface and photoelectron diffraction within the adsorbate layer. Our calculations show the influence of scattering and diffraction, that even can generate a dichroism where none should be. For the case of the 4p 1 2 - subshell of Rb our calculations agree well with our measurements. For the 4p 3 2 - subshell we found a different behaviour due to a polarisation of the state in the adsorbed layer. We also present first results for CDAD from noble gases. The 5p - states from Xe show less atomic-like behaviour, because they are much more weakly bound and form bands.

We measured the CDAD from NO on Pt(111) at the SX 700- III monochromator at the synchrotron BESSY in Berlin. We found high asymmetries up to 60% using a photon energy of 40 eV. Surprisingly, this is higher than the degree of circular polarisation that should be between 30% and 50% for the experimental parameters used. This obvious contradiction can be explained if an additional dichroism arising from a strongly linear polarised component of the radiation at the SX 700- III is taken into account. The polarisation of this component has the orientation of ±45° with respect to the synchrotron plane. This linear polarisation changes its sign if the circular polarisation is changed, too. First experiments on this linear dichroism show large asymmetries for CO Pt (111) , comparable to the CDAD asymmetries.

Well-ordered monolayers of rubidium and potassium on platinum Pt(111) have been studied by LEED, angular resolved UPS and XPS excited by circularly polarised synchrotron radiation from the electron storage ring BESSY (Berlin). The order of pure and oxidised monolayers at T = 300 K was investigated by LEED. CDAD has been measured for the Rb 3d, Rb 4p and K 3p states in the case of the (√3 x √3)R30° structures of pure Rb and K. Exposure of oxygen to the alkali monolayers leads to disordered alkali oxide layers. After additional heat treatment ordered structures are observed again. In all cases of ordered monolayers CDAD asymmetries up to 30% are found. This is surprising, because the observed initial states have spherical symmetry in particular, at least the p 1/2 state. We explain these results by photoelectron diffraction, including neighbouring adsorbate (Rb, K) and underlying substrate (Pt) atoms. Variations of the CDAD asymmetry between 0% and 30% are found to be dependent on the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons up to 190 eV and the angle of observation, respectively.

The spatially resolved energy distribution of electrons emitted from a polycrystalline copper surface has been studied by multiphoton photoemission. Electron emission was induced by femtosecond laser excitation and detected by an emission electron microscope combined with a time-of-flight detector to allow spatially resolved energy analysis. The energy distributions obtained from small spots with strongly enhanced electron emission yield (so-called hot spots) turned out to be different from those measured for homogeneous surface regions. The latter directly reflect two photon photoemission spectra from Cu as was previously observed in spatially averaging experiments. The hot spots, however, are characterized by a slightly lower work function and a strongly enhanced intensity if excited by s-polarized light. The peak positions of these spectra do not depend on the photon energy as is characteristic for a true secondary process. This indicates a different electron emission mechanism in the hot spots compared to homogeneous surfaces.

We have studied the adsorption of Rb and the co-adsorption of O 2 and Rb at Pt(111) using LEED, AES, EELS, ARUPS excited by circularly polarised light (CDAD) and workfunction measurements. At T = 300 K different ordered structures occur as indicated by LEED. The pure Rb monolayer exhibits a (7 × 7) structure. Even at very low oxygen exposure ( L ) this structure is changed to a (√3× √3) R 30° structure with the same lattice spacing within 1%. At high oxygen doses the adlayer becomes disordered. A (4 × 1) structure is observed after an additional heat treatment. Simultaneously, different stages of local order can be distinguished clearly by use of CD AD from the Rb4p states. At T = 90 K disordered Rb adlayers were produced that show an almost vanishing CDAD. For high Rb coverage EELS and ΔΦ measurements indicate that the suboxide Rb 9 O 2 occurs during the early stage of oxidation.