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Electrochemical deposition into templated architectures has been shown to increase the observed saturation magnetization of a range of magnetic materials (e.g. 1). Here we have created monolayer (2D) and 3D opal-type structures of NiFe (permalloy) and Co by electrodeposition into self-assembled polymer templates. The microstructure and thickness of the resultant macroporous structures is controlled by the electrochemical parameters during nucleation and diffusion-controlled growth. Preferential crystallographic texture is observed – resulting in magnetic anisotropy for Co. The magnetic behaviour is assessed by both conventional bulk magnetometry, and locally using high-resolution Lorentz microscopy in the transmission electron microscope (TEM) - providing new insights into the functional properties of these materials. Hao, F. Q. Zhu, C. L. Chien & P. C. Searson. Fabrication and magnetic properties of ordered macroporous nickel structures. J. Electrochem. Soc. 154, D65-D69, (2007)

We explore gender differences in behavior in the context of two types of labor contracts, those that rely on mutual trust and reciprocity and those that specify penalties for shirking. Our main finding is an overall lack of significant gender differences in behavior. In the treatments with penalties for shirking, female employers offer higher rent compared to men and in those treatments this generosity affects female earnings adversely. We find that while workers do reciprocate more generous contract offers by shirking less, there are no pronounced gender differences in shirking. We find that not using a penalty when the option is available leads to significantly higher levels of shirking.

New Zealand, like many other countries, is experiencing a changing demographic profile from one dominated by young people during the twentieth century to one where the population is more evenly distributed across age groups. This has implications for the government's future fiscal position and sustainability of its spending programmes. This article discusses the link between the government budget constraint and fiscal sustainability, measures of fiscal sustainability, and why it is important. We examine New Zealand Treasury's approach to assessing fiscal sustainability, review lessons from previous fiscal adjustments, and discuss criteria to evaluate policy changes designed to achieve fiscal sustainability.

The structure of copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) thin films (5-100 nm) deposited on single-crystal ZnO(1100) substrates by organic molecular beam deposition was determined from grazing-incidence X-ray diffraction reciprocal space maps. The crystal structure was identified as the metastable polymorph α-CuPc, but the molecular stacking was found to vary depending on the film thickness: for thin films, a herringbone arrangement was observed, whereas for films thicker than 10 nm, coexistence of both the herringbone and brickstone arrangements was found. We propose a modified structure for the herringbone phase with a larger monoclinic β angle, which leads to intrastack Cu-Cu distances closer to those in the brickstone phase. This structural basis enables an understanding of the functional properties (e.g., light absorption and charge transport) of (opto)electronic devices fabricated from CuPc/ZnO hybrid systems.

Electrodeposition of highly crystalline ZnO nanostructures directly onto copper phthalocyanine and pentacene thin films, from aqueous solutions containing zinc nitrate and dissolved oxygen, has been successfully demonstrated for the first time using a two-step electrochemical deposition process. Importantly, surface activation of the molecular thin film substrates by depositing a thin layer of ZnO nanoparticles at high cathodic overpotentials prior to film growth was found to be crucial for achieving a dense coverage of ZnO nanostructures with uniform morphology. The mechanism for ZnO deposition via electroreduction of hydroxide precursor species (oxygen and NO3– ions) at the organic-electrolyte interface was shown to be analogous to that reported for conventional inorganic and metal electrodes. Comparison of cathodic current density-time curves, measured during deposition, with film orientation and morphology revealed that the cathodic current density and number of nucleation sites are key factors in det...

A substantial increase in device performance and operational stability in solution processed inverted bulk heterojunction (BHJ) organic photovoltaic devices (OPV) is demonstrated by introducing a zinc oxide (ZnO) interlayer between the electron collecting bottom electrode and the photoactive blend of poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM). The structure and morphology of the dense, planar ZnO layers were controlled either by electro-deposition or spray pyrolysis techniques. Metal oxide sandwich OPV devices based on the photoactive blend on an electro-deposited ZnO interlayer with a (100) preferential crystal orientation, and using a tungsten oxide (WOx) interlayer on the opposite electrode, resulted in a remarkable increase in power conversion efficiency with a value of 4.91% under AM1.5 illumination and an external quantum efficiency of 74%. Electro-deposition of the ZnO at low temperature proved to be the most promising method for forming the ZnO interlayers, allowing the highest control of film structure and morphology, as well as leading to significantly improved device efficiency and stability.

This paper empirically examines the impact of minimum wages on educational enrollments in New Zealand. A significant reform to the youth minimum wage since 2000 has resulted in some age groups undergoing a 91% rise in their real minimum wage over the last 10 years. Three panel least squares multivariate models are estimated from a national sample of nine age cohorts each year over 19 years. This allows analysis of the impact of increases in minimum wage over time and of the introduction of the minimum wage for teenagers in 1994. Our findings indicate that in New Zealand, changes to minimum wages appear to have an insignificant impact on the enrollment levels of 16–24 year olds and the subgroup of 20–24 year olds. In both cases, the standard errors are large making these results unclear. For the subgroup of 16–19 year olds, minimum wage rises have a statistically significant negative effect on enrollment levels. However, the introduction of the minimum wage appears to have had a significantly positive impact on teenagers’ enrollment levels, a possible indication of the ineffective level the minimum wage was set at, in terms of reservation wages of youth in New Zealand.

The electrochemical response of solution-based redox probes is commonly used to detect and monitor the formation and stability of films grafted to conducting substrates. In this work we examine redox probe responses at films grafted to glassy carbon (GC) and pyrolysed photoresist film (PPF) by electrooxidation of aliphatic primary amines. Cyclic voltammograms are obtained before and after soaking the modified surfaces in phosphate buffer and acetonitrile. For conditions where films exhibit large changes in electrochemical blocking properties, AFM measurements of film thickness and surface roughness, and XPS measurements of surface composition, are used to monitor the stability of the films. No changes in film structure or composition can be detected, demonstrating that electrochemical loss of blocking properties cannot be equated with large-scale loss of surface film. The origin of changes in probe response is discussed. Keywords: Amine oxidation, Surface modification, AFM depth profiling, Film permeability

Potent and selective dipeptidyl boronic acid proteasome inhibitors are described. As compared to peptidyl aldehyde compounds, boronic acids in this series display dramatically enhanced potency. Compounds such as 15 are promising new therapeutics for treatment of cancer and inflammatory diseases.

New Zealand, like many other countries, is experiencing a changing demographic profile from one dominated by young people during the 20th century to one where the population is more evenly distributed across age groups. This has implications for the economy and society, including the government's fiscal position in the future and for the sustainability of its spending programmes. This paper discusses the link between the government budget constraint and fiscal sustainability, how fiscal sustainability can be measured and why it’s important. We also examine the Treasury’s current approach to modelling the extent of fiscal adjustment required and options available to achieve this adjustment. The paper proposes criteria to evaluate potential policy changes to address these long-term fiscal challenges and suggests areas where further work could be worthwhile.

Potent and selective dipeptidyl boronic acid proteasome inhibitors are described. As compared to peptidyl aldehyde compounds, boronic acids in this series display dramatically enhanced potency. Compounds such as 15 are promising new therapeutics for treatment of cancer and inflammatory diseases.

Does housework reduce the market wage, and if so, does it have a similar impact for males and females? In this paper, we survey and evaluate the recent and growing empirical literature on the linkages between housework and the wage rate. The review is motivated by unexplained gender wage gaps across studies, which consider personal and market-related factors. We focus on this less-studied aspect of wage determination. We consider the required modelling framework, and provide standardized estimated effects of housework on the hourly wage across studies. We evaluate how this literature has addressed potential estimation problems, in particular, the endogeneity of housework, concavity of the housework–wage function, threshold effects and work effort effects. We conclude that the evidence across ordinary least squares, instrumental variable, fixed effects and two-stage least squares results casts serious doubt on the idea that the negative female housework–wage relationship is only driven by endogeneity bias or individual-specific characteristics. Yet, much more needs to be done to address modelling and data requirements, and we point out likely and promising future research directions.

Improving New Zealand’s economic performance is one of the key outcomes driving the work of the New Zealand Treasury and international connections are an important means of achieving that. The promotion of sustainable economic growth and improved living standards in the Asia-Pacific region through enhanced trade and economic integration lies at the heart of APEC’s mission. While APEC’s focus has traditionally been on trade and investment liberalisation and facilitation, it is increasingly turning its attention also to the role played by “behind-the-border” policies in enabling or impeding regional economic integration (also commonly referred to as “structural policies” or “structural barriers”). This paper surveys the theoretical and empirical literature on economic growth and income convergence processes in the Asia-Pacific region. The review suggests that structural policies are impeding growth and convergence, and that structural policy reforms could bring about large economic gains to the region. The paper also looks at the role that APEC can play in promoting and managing the challenges of structural change in the region. It concludes that structural change is an important challenge facing the Asia- Pacific region, and APEC provides New Zealand and other member economies with an important forum to promote improvements in economies’ domestic structural policies.

A systematic study of the effect of the zinc oxide (ZnO) electrodeposition parameters (concentration, temperature, potential and pH) on film morphology, thickness, transparency, roughness and crystallographic orientation is presented with the view of producing optimized thin, planar, and continuous ZnO films for photovoltaic applications. Electrochemical measurements of the deposition charge as a function of time are used to understand the mechanism of nucleation and textured growth. Continuous thin films of crystalline ZnO are obtained at temperatures below 100 °C without the need for subsequent annealing. The formation of continuous films is favoured by high concentrations of Zn2+ precursor (> 100 mM), high temperature (> 70 °C) and low potentials (< −1.1 V/AgAgCl). A low bulk solution pH is shown to be a key factor in obtaining thin continuous films and the crystallographic orientation of these films can also be controlled by the deposition parameters. The importance of orientation and thickness control on device performance is shown by using the electrodeposited films as electron extracting interlayers in a model organic photovoltaic system.