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Repetitive bouts of binge drinking can lead to neuroplastic events that alter ethanol's pharmacologic effects and perpetuate excessive consumption. The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) system is an example of ethanol-induced neuroadaptations that drive excessive ethanol consumption. Our laboratory has previously shown that CRF antagonist, when infused into the central amygdala (CeA), reduces binge-like ethanol consumption. The present study extends this research by assessing the effects of silencing CRF-producing neurons in CeA on binge-like ethanol drinking stemming from "Drinking in the Dark" (DID) procedures. CRF-ires-Cre mice underwent surgery to infuse G

Adolescent alcohol abuse is a significant public health concern, with approximately 4.3 million U.S. adolescents reporting monthly binge drinking. Excessive ethanol consumption during adolescence has been linked to dysregulation of the neuroimmune system, particularly in the hippocampus. Because there are sex differences in both neuroimmune responses and ethanol's pharmacologic actions, this study tested whether there were disparate effects based on sex in glial cells and neurodegeneration in adulthood after the adolescent intermittent ethanol (AIE) model. Male and female adolescent Sprague-Dawley rats underwent AIE. In adulthood, immunohistochemical techniques were utilized to determine the effects of AIE on astrocytes and microglia, and Fluoro-Jade C (FJC) was used to assess neurodegeneration in the hippocampus. AIE exposure significantly increased astrocyte activation in the cornu ammonis 1 (CA1), CA2/3, and dentate gyrus (DG) in both male and female rats with no discernible sex differences in immunoreactivity. Likewise, the number of GFAP + cells was significantly increased by AIE across the hippocampus. In our microglial assessment, AIE only led to increased Iba1 immunoreactivity in the CA1 but not CA2/3 or DG regions. However, the number of Iba1+ cells was increased by AIE in both the CA1 and DG subregions. In the DG, the ethanol effect was observed in both sexes, but in the CA1, AIE-induced increased Iba1 cells were only observed in females. In regard to neurodegeneration, there were no persisting AIE effects on FJC + cells. These findings indicate that AIE alters hippocampal glial cells in adulthood, in the absence of active neurodegeneration. However, while AIE induced long-term elevation of astroglial measures in both males and females, persisting AIE-induced microglial activation was more sparse and sex-dependent. While the majority of these findings suggest that AIE has similar effects on glial morphology and number between males and females, additional work should determine whether there are molecular differences as well as innate sex differences in glial interaction with AIE's influence on glial functions in behavior.

Alcoholism causes various maladaptations in the central nervous system, including the neuroimmune system. Studies of alcohol-induced dysregulation of the neuroimmune system generally focus on alcohol dependence and brain damage, but our previous research indicates that repetitive binge-like consumption perturbs cytokines independent of cell death. This paper extends that research by examining the impact of binge-like consumption on microglia in the hippocampus and the amygdala. Microglia were assessed using immunohistochemistry following binge-like ethanol consumption based on Drinking-in-the-Dark model. Immunohistochemistry results showed that binge-like ethanol consumption caused an increase in Iba-1 immunoreactivity and the number of Iba-1+ cells after one Drinking-in-the-Dark cycle. However, after three Drinking-in-the-Dark cycles, the number of microglia decreased in the hippocampus. We showed that in the dentate gyrus, the average immunoreactivity/cell was increased following ethanol exposure despite the decrease in number after three cycles. Likewise, Ox-42, an indicator of microglia activation, was upregulated after ethanol consumption. No significant effects on microglia number or immunoreactivity (Iba-1 nor Ox-42) were observed in the amygdala. Finally, ethanol caused an increase in the expression of the microglial gene Aif-1 during intoxication and ten days into abstinence, suggesting persistence of ethanol-induced upregulation of microglial genes. Altogether, these findings indicate that repetitive binge-like ethanol is sufficient to elicit changes in microglial reactivity. This altered neuroimmune state may contribute to the development of alcohol use disorders.

Binge drinking is a common occurrence in the United States, but a high concentration of alcohol in the blood has been shown to have reinforcing and reciprocal effects on the neuroimmune system in both dependent and non-dependent scenarios. The first part of this study examined alcohol's effects on the astrocytic response in the central amygdala and basolateral amygdala (BLA) in a non-dependent model. C57BL/6J mice were given access to either ethanol, water, or sucrose during a "drinking in the dark" paradigm, and astrocyte number and astrogliosis were measured using immunohistochemistry. Results indicate that non-dependent consumption increased glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) density but not the number of GFAP+ cells, suggesting that non-dependent ethanol is sufficient to elicit astrocyte activation. The second part of this study examined how astrocytes impacted behaviors and the neurochemistry related to alcohol using the chemogenetic tool, DREADDs (designer receptors exclusively activated by designer drugs). Transgenic GFAP-hM3Dq mice were administered clozapine N-oxide both peripherally, affecting the entire central nervous system (CNS), or directly into the BLA. In both instances, GFAP-Gq-signaling activation significantly reduced ethanol consumption and correlating blood ethanol concentrations. However, GFAP-Gq-DREADD activation throughout the CNS had more broad effects resulting in decreased locomotor activity and sucrose consumption. More targeted GFAP-Gq-signaling activation in the BLA only impacted ethanol consumption. Finally, a glutamate assay revealed that after GFAP-Gq-signaling activation glutamate concentrations in the amygdala were partially normalized to control levels. Altogether, these studies support the theory that astrocytes represent a viable target for alcohol use disorder therapies.

A purported approach to reducing heating energy in solid wall “hard to heat” housing is the simple application of a thin layer (< 1mm) of thermal paint containing insulating additives. The objective of this study was to test the energy saving claims by a systematic study of the material characteristics and thermal performance of internal coatings using accepted international standard test methods. The coatings have been compared with conventional internal coverings such as emulsion paint, wallpapers and expanded polystyrene liner. A dynamic model of the Energy House research facility has been used to evaluate energy savings, costs, and payback times.\ud \ud \ud The thermal resistance of the thermal paint coatings was generally found to be not much better than that of conventional vinyl textured wallpapers with a lining paper. When all building heat losses are considered, modelling predictions for thermal paint coatings indicate an unfavourable payback period of several hundred years, and energy savings of between 0.4% and 2.9% depending on coating thickness and type. The evidence from the results and models, as well as scanning electron microscopy, do not support the claims that the additive powder particles are effectively nano-porous, evacuated, or that the coatings have low emissivity surfaces.

Objectives: Alcohol dependence leads to dysregulation of the neuroimmune system, but the effects of excessive alcohol consumption on key players of the neuroimmune response after episodic binge drinking in nondependence has not been readily assessed. These studies seek to determine how the neuroimmune system within the hippocampus responds to binge-like consumption prior to dependence or evidence of brain damage. Methods: C57BL/6J mice underwent the drinking in the dark (DID) paradigm to recapitulate binge consumption. Immunohistochemical techniques were employed to determine the effects of ethanol on cytokine and astrocyte responses within the hippocampus. Astrocyte activation was also assessed using qRT-PCR. Results: Our results indicated that binge-like ethanol consumption resulted in a 3.6-fold increase in the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-1β immunoreactivity in various regions of the hippocampus. The opposite effect was seen in the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. Binge-like consumption resulted in a 67% decrease in IL-10 immunoreactivity but had no effect on IL-4 or IL-6 compared with the water-drinking control group. Moreover, astrocyte activation occurred following ethanol exposure as GFAP immunoreactivity was increased over 120% in mice that experienced 3 cycles of ethanol binges. PCR analyses indicated that the mRNA increased by almost 4-fold after one cycle of DID, but this effect did not persist in abstinence. Conclusions: Altogether, these findings suggest that binge-like ethanol drinking prior to dependence causes dysregulation to the neuroimmune system. This altered neuroimmune state may have an impact on behavior but could also result in a heightened neuroimmune response that is exacerbated from further ethanol exposure or other immune-modulating events.

[Image: see text] Immunhistochemically labeled astrocytes (GFP; anti-GFAP) in the dentate gyrus are integrated with other cells (DAPI). The abundance of astrocytes as well as their extensive coverage within the region indicates just how critical it is to understand their role in alcohol use disorders.

The piece uses a model derived from analysing the modern drugs trade where evidence is notoriously difficult to gather, in order to suggest possible applications to the medieval trade in slaves. The piece also looks at the possible role of the slave trade in the early formation of what would become the kingdom of Poland.

Microglia are dynamic cells that have roles in neuronal plasticity as well as in recovery responses following neuronal injury. Although many hypothesize that hyperactivation of microglia contributes to alcohol-induced neuropathology, in other neurodegenerative conditions disruption of normal microglial processes also contributes to neuronal loss, particularly as microglia become dystrophic or dysfunctional. Based on the observation of a striking, abnormal morphology in microglia during binge-like ethanol exposure, the present study investigated the impact of excessive ethanol exposure on microglia number and dystrophic morphology in a model of alcohol dependence that includes neurodegeneration in both adult and adolescent rats. Following 2- and 4-day binge ethanol exposure, the number of microglia was decreased in the hippocampus and the perirhinal and entorhinal cortices of both adult and adolescent rats. Furthermore, a significant number of microglia with a dystrophic morphology were observed in ethanol-exposed tissue, accompanied by a significant decrease in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in the hippocampus. Together these findings suggest another means by which microglia may contribute to alcohol-induced neurodegeneration, specifically dystrophic microglia and/or loss of microglia may disrupt homeostatic and recovery mechanisms. These results demonstrate that microglia also degenerate with excessive alcohol exposure, which has important implications for understanding the role of microglia—and specifically their contributions to plasticity and neuronal survival—in neurodegenerative disease.

Nowadays most retrofit decisions are based on reducing CO2 / heating consumption. The aim of this study was to determine the reliability of three tools (RdSAP, SAP and IES) often used to predict these reductions. Three no-fines concrete (NFC) dwellings (C1, C2, and C3) with similar floor area and construction but different occupants were monitored. Key information about the thermal performance of the fabric; the behaviour of the occupants and the energy consumption was collected before and after 110 mm of external wall insulation (EWI) was added. The target was a 30% reduction on energy consumption due to the EWI. However, only C3 decreased it by 30% as expected, C2 only by 14% due to a subtle rebound effect and C1 actually increased consumption by 75%, due to rebound effect. Steady state tools (RdSAP and SAP) were found to be inaccurate in predicting the operational energy consumption of dwellings, only dynamic performance analysis software (IES) was suitable to carry out this type of prediction accurately. However, this type of software requires highly accurate and detailed information regarding: the baseline performance of the fabric, external weather conditions and, most importantly, accurate pre- and post- heating operational habits of the occupants. Few retrofitting projects have the resources and time to gather this information. Unless those are available, the retrofit decisions should be based in a different criteria, rather than using inaccurate SAP or RdSAP energy consumption predictions. The coefficient of heat loss of the fabric of a dwelling is independent of the occupants. SAP was found quick to calculate reasonable predictions of the coefficient, by using accurate fabric data, and to show the impact of different factors on the heat loss of the fabric. Therefore, it could be claimed that the coefficient of heat loss of the fabric is a suitable alternative criteria to make pre-retrofit decisions.

North American leaders recently committed to reducing methane emissions from the oil and gas sector, but information on current emissions from Canadian unconventional developments is lacking. This study examined the incidence of methane in an area of unconventional natural gas development in northwestern Canada. In August to September 2015 we completed almost 8000 km of vehicle-based survey campaigns on public roads dissecting developments that mainly access the Montney formation in northeastern British Columbia. Six survey routes were repeated 3–6 times and brought us past over 1600 unique well pads and facilities developed by more than 50 different operators. To attribute on-road plumes to infrastructural sources we used gas signatures of residual excess concentrations (anomalies above background) less than 500 m downwind from infrastructural sources. All results represent emissions greater than our minimum detection limit of 0.59 g/s at our average detection distance (319 m). Unlike many other developments in the US for which methane measurements have been reported recently, the methane concentrations we measured at surface were close to normal atmospheric levels, except inside natural gas plumes. Roughly 47 % of active wells emitted methane-rich plumes above our minimum detection limit. Abandoned and under-development well sites also emitted methane-rich plumes, but the incidence rate was below that of producing wells. Multiple sites that pre-date the recent unconventional Montney development were found to be emitting, and in general we observed that older infrastructure tended to emit more often (per unit) with comparable severity in terms of measured excess concentrations on-road. We also observed emissions from facilities of various types that were highly repeatable. Emission patterns in this area were best explained by infrastructure age and type. Extrapolating our results across the Montney development, we estimate that the emission sources we located (emitting at a rate > 0.59 g/s) contribute more than 111,800 tonnes of methane annually to the atmosphere. This value exceeds reported bottom-up estimates of 78,000 tonnes for all oil and gas sector sources in British Columbia, of which the Montney represents about 55 % of production. The results also demonstrate that mobile surveys could be used to exhaustively screen developments for super-emitters, because without our intensive 6-fold replication we could have used single-pass sampling to screen 80 % of Montney-related infrastructure. This is the first bottom-up study of fugitive emissions in the Canadian energy sector, and these results can be used to inform policy development in an era of methane emission reduction efforts.

Background Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) signaling at the CRF 1 receptor (CRF 1 R) in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) can modulate ethanol consumption in rodents. However, the effects of binge-like ethanol drinking on this system have not been thoroughly characterized, and little is known about the role of CRF 2 R or the CRF neurocircuitry involved. Methods The effects of binge-like ethanol consumption on the VTA CRF system were assessed following drinking-in-the-dark procedures. Intra-VTA infusions of selective CRF 1 R and/or CRF 2 R compounds were employed to assess the contributions of these receptors in modulating binge-like ethanol consumption ( n = 89). To determine the potential role of CRF projections from the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) to the VTA, CRF neurons in this circuit were chemogenetically inhibited ( n = 32). Binge-induced changes in VTA CRF system protein and messenger RNA were also assessed ( n = 58). Results Intra-VTA antagonism of CRF 1 R and activation of CRF 2 R resulted in decreased ethanol intake, which was eliminated by simultaneous blockade of both receptors. Chemogenetic inhibition of local CRF neurons in the VTA did not alter binge-like ethanol drinking, but inhibition of VTA-projecting CRF neurons from the BNST significantly reduced intake. Conclusions We provide novel evidence that 1) blunted binge-like ethanol consumption stemming from CRF 1 R blockade requires intact CRF 2 R signaling, and CRF 2 R activation reduces binge-like drinking; 2) inhibiting VTA-projecting BNST CRF neurons attenuates binge-like drinking; and 3) binge-like ethanol drinking alters protein and messenger RNA associated with the VTA-CRF system. These data suggest that ethanol-induced activation of BNST-to-VTA CRF projections is critical in driving binge-like ethanol intake.

The ‘great turn’ in new studies of Western counter-insurgency policies and practices first inaugurated by the US troop surge to Iraq in 2007, accompanied as it was at the time by the publication of...

Higher air temperatures in large cities like Manchester, UK, reduce human thermal comfort. In this paper, the impact of land cover on microclimate, and consequently on indoor thermal comfort is studied. Through different stages, field measurements and computer modelling were carried out for a heat wave episode in summer 2017 in Manchester: \ud First, the urban heat island (UHI) was measured between the city centre of Manchester and the campus of the University of Salford (between May to October 2017). Maximum detected UHI was 2.3 °C at 4:00, during the hottest day of the summer. Parallel measurements within the university campus showed that the park was 0.9 °C cooler than the paved areas (maximum cooling effect was 3.6 °C at 14:45). \ud Finally, the impact of the current land cover of the campus, and a greener land cover (as a renaturing scenario) with more planted trees on indoor thermal comfort of a house within the campus was studied. It was found that by adding 17% more trees to the campus, indoor thermal comfort was improved by 20.8% during the hottest day of 2017 in Manchester. These showed that renaturing cities could be a solution for future warmer climates.

Alcoholism is a highly visible and prevalent issue in the United States. Although binge-drinking is assumed to be a college-age problem, older adults (ages 65 +) consume binge amounts of alcohol and have alcohol use disorders (AUDs). Moreover, individuals with alcohol dependence in their youth often continue to drink as they age. As such, this study tested the hypothesis that the effects of alcohol on hippocampal microglia are exacerbated in aged versus younger rodents in two AUD models. Briefly, adult (2–3 months) and aged (15 + months) Sprague-Dawley rats were administered alcohol or control diet using the Majchrowicz model to study alcohol-induced neurodegeneration. To study the effects of non-dependent binge consumption on microglia, adolescent (6–8 weeks) and aged (18 + months) C57/BL6N were subjected to the Drinking in the Dark paradigm. Microglia number and densitometry were assessed using immunohistochemistry. Hippocampal subregional and model/species-specific effects of alcohol were observed, but overall, aging did not appear to increase the alcohol-induced microglia reactivity as measured by Iba-1 densitometry. However, analysis of microglial counts revealed a significant decrease in the number microglia cells in both the alcohol-induced neurodegeneration and DID model across age groups. In the dentate gyrus, the loss of microglia was exacerbated by aging, particularly in mice after DID, non-dependent model. Using qRT-PCR, the persistence of alcohol and aging effects was assessed following the DID model. Allograft Inflammatory Factor 1 mRNA was increased in both young and aged mice by alcohol exposure; however, only in the aged mice did the alcohol effect persist. Overall, these data imply that the microglial response to alcohol is complex with evidence of depressed numbers of microglia but also increased reactivity with advanced age.

During the next few years, 30 million households and small businesses in the UK will be equipped with a Smart Metering system. Smart meter data could play a central role in the Smart Home ecosystem as well as on the efficient use of the Smart Grid through IoT technologies. This work focuses on methods of acquiring smart meter data from Smart Metering servers and how this data could be utilised directly by domestic consumers and other stakeholders to their benefit, in particular in terms of energy and cost efficiency for the consumer and of stability for the Smart Grid. The steps which need to be followed in order to acquire data from Smart Metering servers using APIs, in particular the REST and the MQTT APIs, are outlined. The visual representation of data streams in near real-time and the post-processing of the smart meter data has led to the development of certain applications which provide customers with a display of their electricity and gas energy consumption as well as the corresponding cost. Moreover, an initial visual display towards an application further utilising the acquired data for the benefit of energy suppliers and energy service companies, using signal processing methods, is provided.

The use of surrogate or ‘proxy’ actors within the context of ‘irregular’ or guerrilla conflict within or between states constitutes a phenomenon spanning nearly the whole of recorded human military history. Yet it is a phenomenon that has also acquired urgent contemporary relevance in the light of the general evolution of conflict in Ukraine and the current Middle East. This introduction to a special issue on the theme investigates some potentially important new avenues to studying the phenomenon in the light of these trends.

On January 26, 2018, the 23rd annual Alcohol and Immunology Research Interest Group (AIRIG) meeting was held at the University of Colorado Denver, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado. The meeting consisted of plenary sessions with oral presentations and a poster presentation session. There were four plenary sessions that covered a wide range of topics relating to alcohol use: Alcohol and Liver Disease; Alcohol, Inflammation and Immune Response; Alcohol and Organ Injury; Heath Consequences and Alcohol Drinking. The meeting provided a forum for the presentation and discussion of novel research findings regarding alcohol use and immunology.

U-values of building elements are often determined using point measurements, where infrared imagery may be used to identify a suitable location for these measurements. Current methods identify that surface areas exhibiting a homogeneous temperature—away from regions of thermal bridging—can be used to obtain U-values. In doing so, however, the resulting U-value is assumed to represent that entire building element, contrary to the information given by the initial infrared inspection. This can be problematic when applying these measured U-values to models for predicting energy performance. Three techniques have been used to measure the U-values of external building elements of a full-scale replica of a pre-1920s U.K. home under controlled conditions: point measurements, using heat flux meters, and two variations of infrared thermography at high and low resolutions. U-values determined from each technique were used to calibrate a model of that building and predictions of the heat transfer coefficient, annual energy consumption, and fuel cost were made. Point measurements and low-resolution infrared thermography were found to represent a relatively small proportion of the overall U-value distribution. By propagating the variation of U-values found using high-resolution thermography, the predicted heat transfer coefficient (HTC) was found to vary between 183 W/K to 235 W/K (±12%). This also led to subsequent variations in the predictions for annual energy consumption for heating (between 4923 kWh and 5481 kWh, ±11%); and in the predicted cost of that energy consumption (between £227 and £281, ±24%). This variation is indicative of the sensitivity of energy simulations to sensor placement when carrying out point measurements for U-values. View Full-Text

Psychological depression is frequently linked to alcohol abuse and even serves as key indicators of an alcohol use disorder (AUD). This relationship is supported by preclinical findings in which depression-like phenotypes develop in animals exposed to chronic intermittent ethanol vapor, a common preclinical model of alcohol dependence. However, the emergence of these maladaptive phenotypes following repeated binge-like ethanol drinking remains relatively unexplored. The purpose of this study was to evaluate depression-like behaviors associated with binge-like consumption in mice. Using the drinking-in-the-dark (DID) paradigm, we examined the impact of multiple binge-like cycles (1, 3, or 6) on depression-like behaviors in the forced swim test (FST) and sucrose preference as a test for anhedonia. We also assessed the effect of repeated binge cycles on the consumption of bitter and sweet tastants over a range of concentrations. Results indicated that binge-like ethanol drinking did not lead to depression-like behavior as repeated cycles of DID did not alter sucrose consumption or preference nor did it impact time spent immobile during the FST. Animals that experienced six cycles of DID showed increased quinine consumption and increased quinine preference, which may be indicative of an escalated preference for tastants that resemble the gustatory aspects of ethanol. Interestingly, an unexpected ~20% increase in hypermobility was observed after three cycles of binge-like ethanol drinking. Although the FST is most frequently used to model depression-like behavior, emerging evidence suggests that increased hypermobility during the FST could be indicative of an inability to cope in a stressful situation, suggesting that repeated ethanol exposure in the present experiment transiently enhances stress reactivity.

This paper focuses on the lack of impact on language education of recent paradigm shifts in the study of language and society such as the recognition of the ideology of language[s] as stable, discrete or bounded entities and the reality of heteroglossic languaging and semiotic practices in everyday life. Using South Africa as a case, the paper explores the implications of heteroglossic conceptualising of language as social practice for language education through three ethnographically informed case studies of classroom discourse. I will argue that monoglossic orientations which ironically underpin both monolingual and “multilingual” approaches have wide-ranging constraining effects on how children are positioned in schooling, and on children’s participation in classrooms, resulting in a form of ‘epistemic injustice’ (Fricker, 2007).

Background In recent years, much attention has been given to the lack of reproducibility in biomedical research, particularly in preclinical animal studies. This is a problem that also plagues the alcohol research field, particularly in consistent consumption in animal models of alcohol use disorders. One often overlooked factor that could affect reproducibility is the maintenance diet used in preclinical studies. Methods Herein, 2 well-established models of alcohol consumption, the "drinking in the dark" (DID) procedure and the continuous 2-bottle choice (C2BC) paradigm, were employed to determine the effects of diet on ethanol (EtOH) consumption. Male C57BL/6J mice were given 1 of 6 standard rodent chow diets obtained from Purina LabDiet(®) , Inc. (Prolab(®) RMH 3000) or Harlan(®) Laboratories, Inc. (Teklad Diets T.2916, T.2918, T.2920X, T.7912, or T.8940). A separate group of animals were used to test dietary effects on EtOH pharmacokinetics and behavioral measures following intraperitoneal (IP) injections of various doses of EtOH. Results Mice eating Harlan diets T.2916 (H2916) and T.2920X (H2920) consumed significantly less EtOH and exhibited lower blood EtOH concentrations (BECs) during DID; however, during C2BC, animals maintained on Harlan T.7912 (H7912) consumed more EtOH and had a higher EtOH preference than the other diet groups. EtOH consumption levels did not stem from changes in alcohol pharmacokinetics, as a separate group of animals administered EtOH IP showed no difference in BECs. However, animals on Harlan diet T.2920X (H2920) were more sensitive to alcohol-induced locomotor activity in an open-field task. No diet-dependent differences were seen in alcohol-induced sedation as measured with loss of righting reflex. Conclusions Although these data do not identify a specific mechanism, together, they clearly show that the maintenance diet impacts EtOH consumption. It is incumbent upon the research community to consider the importance of describing nutritional information in methods, which may help decrease interlaboratory reproducibility issues.

Known in the West up until now predominantly through the publication of a limited number of his economic writings, E.A. Preobrazhensky has gone down in history primarily as a theorist of the ‘transition period’ in socialist economics and as a prominent victim of Stalin's purges. A new series of his collected works, however, publishing for the first time large quantities of material from his diaries, letters and newspaper work, looks set to transform his reputation, and underline his stature as one of the most original and sympathetic figures produced by the Bolshevik Revolution.