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With the emergence and rapid spreading of NDM-1 and existence of clinically relevant VIM-1 and IMP-1, discovery of pan inhibitors targeting metallo-beta-lactamases (MBLs) became critical in our battle against bacterial infection. Concurrent with our fragment and high-throughput screenings, we performed a knowledge-based search of known metallo-beta-lactamase inhibitors (MBLIs) to identify starting points for early engagement of medicinal chemistry. A class of compounds exemplified by

Graphical abstract, The host response to SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, is highly heterogeneous, ranging from mild/asymptomatic to severe. The moderate to severe forms of COVID-19 often require hospitalization, are associated with a high rate of mortality, and appear to be caused by an inappropriately exaggerated inflammatory response to the virus. Emerging data confirm the involvement of both innate and adaptive immune pathways both in protection from SARS-CoV-2, and in driving the pathology of severe COVID-19. In particular, innate immune cells including neutrophils appear to be key players in the inflammation that causes the vicious cycle of damage and inflammation that underlies the symptomatology of severe COVID-19. Several recent studies support a link between damage and inflammation, with damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) playing a key role in the pathology of severe COVID-19. In this review, we put into perspective the role of DAMPs and of components of the DAMP-signaling cascade, including Siglecs and their cognate ligands CD24 and CD52, in COVID-19. Further, we review clinical data on proposed therapeutics targeting DAMP pathways to treat SARS-CoV-2 infection and the regulation of these signaling cascades in COVID-19. We also discuss the potential impact of DAMP-mediated inflammation in other indications related to COVID-19, such as ARDS, endothelial dysfunction, hypercoagulation, and sepsis.

Clostridium difficile is a major nosocomial pathogen that produces two exotoxins, TcdA and TcdB, with TcdB thought to be the primary determinant in human disease. TcdA and TcdB are large, multidomain proteins, each harboring a cytotoxic glucosyltransferase domain that is delivered into the cytosol from endosomes via a translocation domain after receptor-mediated endocytosis of toxins from the cell surface. Although there are currently no known host cell receptors for TcdA, three cell-surface receptors for TcdB have been identified: CSPG4, NECTIN3, and FZD1/2/7. The sites on TcdB that mediate binding to each receptor are not defined. Furthermore, it is not known whether the combined repetitive oligopeptide (CROP) domain is involved in or required for receptor binding. Here, in a screen designed to identify sites in TcdB that are essential for target cell intoxication, we identified a region at the junction of the translocation and the CROP domains that is implicated in CSPG4 binding. Using a series of C-terminal truncations, we show that the CSPG4-binding site on TcdB extends into the CROP domain, requiring three short repeats for binding and for full toxicity on CSPG4-expressing cells. Consistent with the location of the CSPG4-binding site on TcdB, we show that the anti-TcdB antibody bezlotoxumab, which binds partially within the first three short repeats, prevents CSPG4 binding to TcdB. In addition to establishing the binding region for CSPG4, this work ascribes for the first time a role in TcdB CROPs in receptor binding and further clarifies the relative roles of host receptors in TcdB pathogenesis.

Since the initial report of the novel Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) emanating from Wuhan, China, Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has spread globally. While the effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection are not completely understood, there appears to be a wide spectrum of disease ranging from mild symptoms to severe respiratory distress, hospitalization, and mortality. There are no Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved treatments for COVID-19 aside from remdesivir; early efforts to identify efficacious therapeutics for COVID-19 have mainly focused on drug repurposing screens to identify compounds with antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 in cellular infection systems. These screens have yielded intriguing hits, but the use of nonhuman immortalized cell lines derived from non-pulmonary or gastrointestinal origins poses any number of questions in predicting the physiological and pathological relevance of these potential interventions. While our knowledge of this novel virus continues to evolve, our current understanding of the key molecular and cellular interactions involved in SARS-CoV-2 infection is discussed in order to provide a framework for developing the most appropriate in vitro toolbox to support current and future drug discovery efforts.

Clostridium difficile is a major nosocomial pathogen that produces two exotoxins, TcdA and TcdB, with TcdB thought to be the primary determinant in human disease. TcdA and TcdB are large, multidomain proteins, each harboring a cytotoxic glucosyltransferase domain that is delivered into the cytosol from endosomes via a translocation domain after receptor-mediated endocytosis of toxins from the cell surface. Although there are currently no known host cell receptors for TcdA, three cell-surface receptors for TcdB have been identified: CSPG4, NECTIN3, and FZD1/2/7. The sites on TcdB that mediate binding to each receptor are not defined. Furthermore, it is not known whether the combined repetitive oligopeptide (CROP) domain is involved in or required for receptor binding. Here, in a screen designed to identify sites in TcdB that are essential for target cell intoxication, we identified a region at the junction of the translocation and the CROP domains that is implicated in CSPG4 binding. Using a series of C-terminal truncations, we show that the CSPG4-binding site on TcdB extends into the CROP domain, requiring three short repeats for binding and for full toxicity on CSPG4-expressing cells. Consistent with the location of the CSPG4-binding site on TcdB, we show that the anti-TcdB antibody bezlotoxumab, which binds partially within the first three short repeats, prevents CSPG4 binding to TcdB. In addition to establishing the binding region for CSPG4, this work ascribes for the first time a role in TcdB CROPs in receptor binding and further clarifies the relative roles of host receptors in TcdB pathogenesis.

Clostridium difficile is a spore-forming gram-positive bacterium that causes sometimes severe infections of the gut of affected individuals. The high prevalence of C. difficile infections has caused the Center for Disease Control to characterize this disease as “an immediate health threat that requires urgent and aggressive action.” A major issue with existing treatments for C. difficile is their reliance on antibiotics to kill the bacterium. These antibacterial agents cause disruptions in the gut flora that normally compete with C. difficile, rendering the gut lumen susceptible to a new round of infection or to germination of persistent C. difficile spores. This cycle of infection and recurrence underscores the need for novel approaches to the treatment and prevention of C. difficile infections. This review summarizes previous and ongoing efforts to develop active and passive immunization strategies for the prevention of primary and recurrent C. difficile infections.

The symptoms of Clostridium difficile infections are caused by two exotoxins, TcdA and TcdB, which target host colonocytes by binding to unknown cell surface receptors, at least in part via their combined repetitive oligopeptide (CROP) domains. A combination of the anti-TcdA antibody actoxumab and the anti-TcdB antibody bezlotoxumab is currently under development for the prevention of recurrent C. difficile infections. We demonstrate here through various biophysical approaches that bezlotoxumab binds to specific regions within the N-terminal half of the TcdB CROP domain. Based on this information, we solved the x-ray structure of the N-terminal half of the TcdB CROP domain bound to Fab fragments of bezlotoxumab. The structure reveals that the TcdB CROP domain adopts a β-solenoid fold consisting of long and short repeats and that bezlotoxumab binds to two homologous sites within the CROP domain, partially occluding two of the four putative carbohydrate binding pockets located in TcdB. We also show that bezlotoxumab neutralizes TcdB by blocking binding of TcdB to mammalian cells. Overall, our data are consistent with a model wherein a single molecule of bezlotoxumab neutralizes TcdB by binding via its two Fab regions to two epitopes within the N-terminal half of the TcdB CROP domain, partially blocking the carbohydrate binding pockets of the toxin and preventing toxin binding to host cells.

Clostridium difficile causes infections of the colon in susceptible patients. Specifically, gut dysbiosis induced by treatment with broad-spectrum antibiotics facilitates germination of ingested C. difficile spores, expansion of vegetative cells, and production of symptom-causing toxins TcdA and TcdB. The current standard of care for C. difficile infections (CDI) consists of administration of antibiotics such as vancomycin that target the bacterium but also perpetuate gut dysbiosis, often leading to disease recurrence. The monoclonal antitoxin antibodies actoxumab (anti-TcdA) and bezlotoxumab (anti-TcdB) are currently in development for the prevention of recurrent CDI. In this study, the effects of vancomycin or actoxumab/bezlotoxumab treatment on progression and resolution of CDI were assessed in mice and hamsters. Rodent models of CDI are characterized by an early severe phase of symptomatic disease, associated with high rates of morbidity and mortality; high intestinal C. difficile burden; and a disrupted intestinal microbiota. This is followed in surviving animals by gradual recovery of the gut microbiota, associated with clearance of C. difficile and resolution of disease symptoms over time. Treatment with vancomycin prevents disease initially by inhibiting outgrowth of C. difficile but also delays microbiota recovery, leading to disease relapse following discontinuation of therapy. In contrast, actoxumab/bezlotoxumab treatment does not impact the C. difficile burden but rather prevents the appearance of toxin-dependent symptoms during the early severe phase of disease, effectively preventing disease until the microbiota (the body's natural defense against C. difficile ) has fully recovered. These data provide insight into the mechanism of recurrence following vancomycin administration and into the mechanism of recurrence prevention observed clinically with actoxumab/bezlotoxumab.

The resistance of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) to all β-lactam classes limits treatment options for serious infections involving this organism. Our goal is to discover new agents that restore the activity of β-lactams against MRSA, an approach that has led to the discovery of two classes of natural product antibiotics, a cyclic depsipeptide (krisynomycin) and a lipoglycopeptide (actinocarbasin), which potentiate the activity of imipenem against MRSA strain COL. We report here that these imipenem synergists are inhibitors of the bacterial type I signal peptidase SpsB, a serine protease that is required for the secretion of proteins that are exported through the Sec and Tat systems. A synthetic derivative of actinocarbasin, M131, synergized with imipenem both in vitro and in vivo with potent efficacy. The in vitro activity of M131 extends to clinical isolates of MRSA but not to a methicillin-sensitive strain. Synergy is restricted to β-lactam antibiotics and is not observed with other antibiotic classes. We propose that the SpsB inhibitors synergize with β-lactams by preventing the signal peptidase-mediated secretion of proteins required for β-lactam resistance. Combinations of SpsB inhibitors and β-lactams may expand the utility of these widely prescribed antibiotics to treat MRSA infections, analogous to β-lactamase inhibitors which restored the utility of this antibiotic class for the treatment of resistant Gram-negative infections.

P2Y14 is a member of the pyrimidinergic GPCR family. UDP-Glc has been previously shown to activate human P2Y14, whereas UDP was unable to activate the receptor. In this study, the authors used conventional and nonconventional methods to further characterize P2Y14 and its ligands. Conventional calcium mobilization and nonconventional cellular impedance functional assays revealed that UMP and UDP selectively activated HEK cells coexpressing P2Y14 and Gα(qi5). In the impedance assays, the presence of exogenous Gα(qi5) resulted in agonist-induced Gq signaling, whereas in the absence of exogenous Gα(qi5), the signal was indicative of Gi. The authors established the first P2Y14 membrane filtration binding assay using a novel optimized expression vector and [(3)H]UDP as radioligand. UDP-Glc, UMP, and UDP dose dependently inhibited [(3)H]UDP binding in the binding assay, and saturation analysis revealed that UDP bound P2Y14 with a K(D) = 10 nM and a B(max) = 110 pmol/mg. The authors screened a phosphonate library and identified compound A, which inhibited UDP-Glc-mediated calcium signaling in the fluorometric imaging plate reader assay (IC(50) = 2.3 µM) and competed for [(3)H]UDP binding in the novel binding assay with a K(i) = 1280 nM.

A novel series of EP(4) ligands, based on a benzyl indoline scaffold, has been discovered. It was found that agonism and antagonism in this series can be easily modulated by minor modifications on the benzyl group. The pharmacokinetic, metabolic and pharmacological profiles of these compounds was explored. It was found that these compounds show good pharmacokinetics in rat and are efficacious in pre-clinical models of pain and inflammation.

Clostridium difficile infections (CDIs) are the leading cause of hospital-acquired infectious diarrhea and primarily involve two exotoxins, TcdA and TcdB. Actoxumab and bezlotoxumab are human monoclonal antibodies that neutralize the cytotoxic/cytopathic effects of TcdA and TcdB, respectively. In a phase II clinical study, the actoxumab-bezlotoxumab combination reduced the rate of CDI recurrence in patients who were also treated with standard-of-care antibiotics. However, it is not known whether the antibody combination will be effective against a broad range of C. difficile strains. As a first step toward addressing this, we tested the ability of actoxumab and bezlotoxumab to neutralize the activities of toxins from a number of clinically relevant and geographically diverse strains of C. difficile . Neutralization potencies, as measured in a cell growth/survival assay with purified toxins from various C. difficile strains, correlated well with antibody/toxin binding affinities. Actoxumab and bezlotoxumab neutralized toxins from culture supernatants of all clinical isolates tested, including multiple isolates of the BI/NAP1/027 and BK/NAP7/078 strains, at antibody concentrations well below plasma levels observed in humans. We compared the bezlotoxumab epitopes in the TcdB receptor binding domain across known TcdB sequences and found that key substitutions within the bezlotoxumab epitopes correlated with the relative differences in potencies of bezlotoxumab against TcdB of some strains, including ribotypes 027 and 078. Combined with in vitro neutralization data, epitope modeling will enhance our ability to predict the coverage of new and emerging strains by actoxumab-bezlotoxumab in the clinic.

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) represents the most prevalent cause of antibiotic-associated gastrointestinal infections in health care facilities in the developed world. Disease symptoms are caused by the two homologous exotoxins, TcdA and TcdB. Standard therapy for CDI involves administration of antibiotics that are associated with a high rate of disease recurrence, highlighting the need for novel treatment paradigms that target the toxins rather than the organism itself. A combination of human monoclonal antibodies, actoxumab and bezlotoxumab, directed against TcdA and TcdB, respectively, has been shown to decrease the rate of recurrence in patients treated with standard-of-care antibiotics. However, the exact mechanism of antibody-mediated protection is poorly understood. In this study, we show that the antitoxin antibodies are protective in multiple murine models of CDI, including systemic and local (gut) toxin challenge models, as well as primary and recurrent models of infection in mice. Systemically administered actoxumab-bezlotoxumab prevents both the damage to the gut wall and the inflammatory response, which are associated with C. difficile in these models, including in mice challenged with a strain of the hypervirulent ribotype 027. Furthermore, mutant antibodies (N297Q) that do not bind to Fcγ receptors provide a level of protection similar to that of wild-type antibodies, demonstrating that the mechanism of protection is through direct neutralization of the toxins and does not involve host effector functions. These data provide a mechanistic basis for the prevention of recurrent disease observed in CDI patients in clinical trials.

A genetic contribution to asthma susceptibility is well recognized, and linkage studies have identified a large number of genes associated with asthma pathogenesis. Recently, a locus encoding a seven-transmembrane protein was shown to be associated with asthma in founder populations. The expression of the protein GPRA (G protein-coupled receptor for asthma susceptibility) in human airway epithelia and smooth muscle, and its increased expression in a mouse model of asthma, suggested that a gain-of-function mutation in this gene increased the disease risk. However, we report here that the development of allergic lung disease in GPRA-deficient mice is unaltered. A possible explanation for this finding became apparent upon reexamination of the expression of this gene. In contrast to initial studies, our analyses failed to detect expression of GPRA in human lung tissue or in mice with allergic lung disease. We identify a single parameter that distinguishes GPRA-deficient and wild-type mice. Whereas the change in airway resistance in response to methacholine was identical in control and GPRA-deficient mice, the mutant animals showed an attenuated response to thromboxane, a cholinergic receptor-dependent bronchoconstricting agent. Together, our studies fail to support a direct contribution of GPRA to asthma pathogenesis. However, our data suggest that GPRA may contribute to the asthmatic phenotype by altering the activity of other pathways, such as neurally mediated mechanisms, that contribute to disease. This interpretation is supported by high levels of GPRA expression in the brain and its recent identification as the neuropeptide S receptor.

Neuropeptide S (NPS) and its receptor (NPSR) are thought to have a role in asthma pathogenesis; a number of single nucleotide polymorphisms within NPSR have been shown to be associated with an increased prevalance of asthma. One such single nucleotide polymorphism leads to the missense mutation N107I, which results in an increase in the potency of NPS for NPSR. To gain insight into structure-function relationships within NPS and NPSR, we first carried out a limited structural characterization of NPS and subjected the peptide to extensive mutagenesis studies. Our results show that the NH2-terminal third of NPS, in particular residues Phe-2, Arg-3, Asn-4, and Val-6, are necessary and sufficient for activation of NPSR. Furthermore, part of a nascent helix within the peptide, spanning residues 5 through 13, acts as a regulatory region that inhibits receptor activation. Notably, this inhibition is absent in the asthma-linked N107I variant of NPSR, suggesting that residue 107 interacts with the aforementioned regulatory region of NPS. Whereas this interaction may be at the root of the increase in potency associated with the N107I variant, we show here that the mutation also causes an increase in cell-surface expression of the mutant receptor, leading to a concomitant increase in the maximal efficacy (Emax) of NPS. Our results identify the key residues of NPS involved in NPSR activation and suggest a molecular basis for the functional effects of the N107I mutation and for its putative pathophysiological link with asthma.

The exotoxins TcdA and TcdB are the major virulence factors of Clostridium difficile . Circulating neutralizing antitoxin antibodies are protective in C. difficile infection (CDI), as demonstrated, in part, by the protective effects of actoxumab and bezlotoxumab, which bind to and neutralize TcdA and TcdB, respectively. The question of how systemic IgG antibodies neutralize toxins in the gut lumen remains unresolved, although it has been suggested that the Fc receptor FcRn may be involved in active antibody transport across the gut epithelium. In this study, we demonstrated that genetic ablation of FcRn and excess irrelevant human IgG have no impact on actoxumab-bezlotoxumab-mediated protection in murine and hamster models of CDI, suggesting that Fc-dependent transport of antibodies across the gut wall is not required for efficacy. Tissue distribution studies in hamsters suggest, rather, that the transport of antibodies depends on toxin-induced damage to the gut lining. In an in vitro two-dimensional culture system that mimics the architecture of the intestinal mucosal epithelium, toxins on the apical side of epithelial cell monolayers are neutralized by basolateral antibodies, and antibody transport across the cell layer is dramatically increased upon addition of toxin to the apical side. Similar data were obtained with F(ab′) 2 fragments, which lack an Fc domain, consistent with FcRn-independent paracellular, rather than transcellular, transport of antibodies. Kinetic studies show that initial damage caused by apical toxin is required for efficient neutralization by basolateral antibodies. These data may represent a general mechanism of humoral response-mediated protection against enteric pathogens.

Polar residues comprise about 15% of the transmembrane (TM) domains of proteins, where they can stabilize structure via native side chain-side chain interhelical hydrogen bonds between TM helices. However, non-native H-bonds may be implicated in disease states, through limiting protein dynamics during transport and/or misfolding the protein by inducing non-native rotational positions about TM helical axes. Here we have undertaken an investigation of the presence and strength of H-bond interactions within a series of helix-loop-helix ("hairpin") constructs derived from TM helices 3 and 4 (italic) of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) (prototypic sequence G(194)LALAHFVWIAPLQ(207)VALLMGLIWELLQASAFAGLGFLIV(232)LALFQ(237)AGLG(241)) in which wild-type Q207 in TM3 forms an interhelical H-bond with CF-phenotypic mutant V232D in TM4 [Therien, A. G., Grant, F. E., and Deber, C. M. (2001) Nat. Struct. Biol 8, 597-601]. In the present work, a library of 21 TM3/4 constructs was prepared, where Asp residues were placed individually at TM4 positions 221-241. Using gel shift assays-in which H-bond-linked hairpins (closed conformation) migrate faster than the elongated forms (open conformation)-we found that Q207 in TM3 is able to "capture" all 21 TM4 D mutations into measurable populations of interhelical H-bonds. A similar library of TM4 D mutants-but also containing Q207L-reverted to wild-type migration rates, confirming Q207 as the polar partner for TM4 D residues. In view of the broad capture range of Q207, these results emphasize the potential consequences to folding and dynamics of introducing polar mutations into the TM domains of membrane proteins in the vicinity of a native polar TM residue.

Previous experiments on the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator suggested that non-native polar residues within membrane domains can compromise protein structure/function. However, depending on context, replacement of a native residue by a non-native residue can result either in genetic disease or in benign effects (e.g., polymorphisms). Knowledge of missense mutations that frequently cause protein malfunction and subsequent disease can accordingly reveal information as to the impact of these residues in local protein environments. We exploited this concept by performing a statistical comparison of disease-causing mutations in protein membrane-spanning domains versus soluble domains. Using the Human Gene Mutation Database of 240 proteins (including 80 membrane proteins) associated with human disease, we compared the relative phenotypic propensity to cause disease of the 20 naturally occurring amino acids when removed from-or inserted into-native protein sequences. We found that in transmembrane domains (TMDs), mutations involving polar residues, and ionizable residues in particular (notably arginine), are more often associated with protein malfunction than soluble proteins. To further test the hypothesis that interhelical cross-links formed by membrane-embedded polar residues stabilize TMDs, we compared the occurrence of such residues in the TMDs of mesophilic and thermophilic prokaryotes. Results showed a significantly higher proportion of ionizable residues in thermophilic organisms, reinforcing the notion that membrane-embedded electrostatic interactions play critical roles in TMD stability.

The enzymatic activity of the Na,K-ATPase, or sodium pump, is modulated by members of the so-called FXYD family of transmembrane proteins. The best characterized member, FXYD2, also referred to as the gamma subunit, has been shown to decrease the apparent Na+ affinity and increase the apparent ATP affinity of the pump. The effect on ATP affinity had been ascribed to the cytoplasmic C-terminal end of the protein, whereas recent observations suggest that the transmembrane (TM) segment of gamma mediates the Na+ affinity effect. Here we use a novel approach involving synthetic transmembrane mimetic peptides to demonstrate unequivocally that the TM domain of gamma effects the shift in apparent Na+ affinity. Specifically, we show that incubation of these peptides with membranes containing alphabeta pumps modulates Na+ affinity in a manner similar to transfected full-length gamma subunit. Using mutated gamma peptides and transfected proteins, we also show that a specific glycine residue, Gly-41, which is associated with a form of familial renal hypomagnesemia when mutated to Arg, is important for this kinetic effect, whereas Gly-35, located on an alternate face of the transmembrane helix, is not. The peptide approach allows for the analysis of mutants that fail to be expressed in a transfected system.

Using a helix-loop-helix construct consisting of the adjacent transmembrane segments 3 and 4 of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) labeled with pyrene at both N and C termini, we describe a system for the study of intramolecular helix-helix interactions within a polytopic membrane protein. Through measurement of pyrene excimer band intensity as a determinant of helix-helix proximity, we show that the helices retain tertiary contacts in detergent micelles. Notably, the nature of the micellar detergent can alter the stability of these contacts, with perfluorooctanoate highly supportive, lysophosphatidylcholine and lysophosphatidylglycerol somewhat less tolerant, and SDS largely intolerant of such interactions. This construct is further employed to study the role of the acyl chain length of micellar detergents in modulating interhelical packing; detergents having acyl chains of 9 carbons display the greatest extent of helical packing. These results provide important information regarding the role of lipids on membrane protein folding and conformation as well as demonstrate the usefulness of a pyrene-based system in studying the forces that govern interhelical packing.

Transmembrane (TM) alpha-helices are surrounded by the hydrocarbon chains of the lipid bilayer. The low dielectric constant of this environment makes it extremely unfavorable for a residue with a polar side chain to exist in a non-H-bonded state. Therefore, in combination with a wild-type polar residue partner, a polar TM mutant could generate, in some cases, a non-native H-bond that could impair native protein structure/function-and possibly lead to a disease state. We have examined protein mutation databases and have found many examples of TM-based apolar to polar mutations that are, in fact, a cause of human disease. Here we review the various molecular defects that such mutations can produce, including impeding protein dynamics by side-chain-side-chain interhelical H-bond cross-links; alteration of helical packing through steric hindrance; and disruption of a protein active site. We further note that the reverse case--membrane-embedded polar to apolar mutations--can similarly cause human disease, implying that native interhelical H-bonds can also play pivotal roles in stabilizing native TM domains. As a specific example, we show that the Gly to Arg mutation occurs statistically more frequently in TM domains as compared to its occurrence in soluble domains, suggesting that TM-based G-to-R mutations have a high "phenotypic propensity" for disease. A more complete understanding of how mutations involving polar residues in TM domains of proteins translate into compromised function may aid in the development of novel therapeutics.

This article reviews our studies of the γ subunit of the sodium pump. γ is a member of the FXYD family of small, single transmembrane proteins and is expressed predominantly in the kidney tubule. There are two major variants of γ which function similarly to bring about two distinct effects, one on K′ATP and the other, on KK, the affinity of the pump for K+ acting as a competitor of cytoplasmic Na+. In this way, γ is believed to provide a self-regulatory mechanism for maintaining the steady-state activity of the pump in the kidney. Our studies also suggest that K+ antagonism of cytoplasmic Na+ activation of the pump is relevant not only to the presence of γ in the kidney, but probably some hitherto undefined factor(s) in other tissues, most notably heart. The interesting possibility that not only γ but other members of the FXYD family regulate ion transport in a tissue-specific manner is discussed.

The Na+-K+-ATPase, or sodium pump, is the membrane-bound enzyme that maintains the Na+and K+gradients across the plasma membrane of animal cells. Because of its importance in many basic and specialized cellular functions, this enzyme must be able to adapt to changing cellular and physiological stimuli. This review presents an overview of the many mechanisms in place to regulate sodium pump activity in a tissue-specific manner. These mechanisms include regulation by substrates, membrane-associated components such as cytoskeletal elements and the γ-subunit, and circulating endogenous inhibitors as well as a variety of hormones, including corticosteroids, peptide hormones, and catecholamines. In addition, the review considers the effects of a range of specific intracellular signaling pathways involved in the regulation of pump activity and subcellular distribution, with particular consideration given to the effects of protein kinases and phosphatases.

Tissue-distinct interactions of the Na+-K+-ATPase with Na+and K+, independent of isoform-specific properties, were reported previously (A. G. Therien, N. B. Nestor, W. J. Ball, and R. Blostein. J. Biol. Chem. 271: 7104–7112, 1996). In this paper, we describe a detailed analysis of tissue-specific kinetics particularly relevant to regulation of pump activity by intracellular K+, namely K+inhibition at cytoplasmic Na+sites. Our results show that the order of susceptibilities of α1pumps of various rat tissues to K+/Na+antagonism, represented by the ratio of the apparent affinity for Na+binding at cytoplasmic activation sites in the absence of K+to the affinity constant for K+as a competitive inhibitor of Na+binding at cytoplasmic sites, is red blood cell < axolemma ≈ rat α1-transfected HeLa cells < small intestine < kidney < heart. In addition, we have carried out an extensive analysis of the kinetics of K+binding and occlusion to the cytoplasmic cation binding site and find that, for most tissues, there is a relationship between the rate of K+binding/occlusion and the apparent affinity for K+as a competitive inhibitor of Na+activation, the order for both parameters being heart ≥ kidney > small intestine ≈ rat α1-transfected HeLa cells. The notion that modulations in cytoplasmic K+/Na+antagonism are a potential mode of pump regulation is underscored by evidence of its reversibility. Thus the relatively high K+/Na+antagonism characteristic of kidney pumps was reduced when rat kidney microsomal membranes were fused into the dog red blood cell.

The experiments described in this report reconcile some of the apparent differences in isoform-specific kinetics of the Na,K-ATPase reported in earlier studies. Thus, tissue-specific differences in Na+ and K+ activation kinetics of Na,K-ATPase activity of the same species (rat) were observed when the same isoform was assayed in different tissues or cells. In the case of alpha1, alpha1-transfected HeLa cell, rat kidney, and axolemma membranes were compared. For alpha3, the ouabain-insensitive alpha3*-transfected HeLa cell (cf. Jewell, E. A., and Lingrel, J. B. (1991) J. Biol. Chem. 266, 16925-16930), pineal gland, and axolemma (mainly alpha3) membranes were compared. The order of apparent affinities for Na+ of alpha1 pumps was axolemma approximately rat alpha1-transfected HeLakidney, and for K+, kidney approximately alpha1-transfected HeLaaxolemma. For alpha3, the order of apparent affinities for Na+ was pineal gland approximately axolemmaalpha3*-transfected HeLa, and for K+, alpha3*-transfected HeLaaxolemma approximately pineal gland. In addition, the differences in apparent affinities for Na+ of either kidney alpha1 or HeLa alpha3* as compared to the same isoform in other tissues were even greater when the K+ concentration was increased. A kinetic analysis of the apparent affinities for Na+ as a function of K+ concentration indicates that isoform-specific as well as tissue-specific differences are related to the apparent affinities for both Na+ and K+, the latter acting as a competitive inhibitor at cytoplasmic Na+ activation sites. Although the nature of the tissue-specific modulation of K+/Na+ antagonism remains unknown, an analysis of the nature of the beta isoform associated with alpha1 or alpha3 using isoform-specific immunoprecipitation indicates that the presence of distinct beta subunits does not account for differences of alpha1 of kidney, axolemma, and HeLa, and of alpha3 of axolemma and HeLa; in both instances beta1 is the predominant beta isoform present or associated with either alpha1 or alpha3. However, a kinetic difference in K+/Na+ antagonism due to distinct betas may apply to alpha3 of axolemma (alpha3beta1) and pineal gland ( alpha3beta2).

Background Oxidative Stress contributes to the pathogenesis of many diseases. The NRF2/KEAP1 axis is a key transcriptional regulator of the anti-oxidant response in cells. Nrf2 knockout mice have implicated this pathway in regulating inflammatory airway diseases such as asthma and COPD. To better understand the role the NRF2 pathway has on respiratory disease we have taken a novel approach to define NRF2 dependent gene expression in a relevant lung system. Methods Normal human lung fibroblasts were transfected with siRNA specific for NRF2 or KEAP1. Gene expression changes were measured at 30 and 48 hours using a custom Affymetrix Gene array. Changes in Eotaxin-1 gene expression and protein secretion were further measured under various inflammatory conditions with siRNAs and pharmacological tools. Results An anti-correlated gene set (inversely regulated by NRF2 and KEAP1 RNAi) that reflects specific NRF2 regulated genes was identified. Gene annotations show that NRF2-mediated oxidative stress response is the most significantly regulated pathway, followed by heme metabolism, metabolism of xenobiotics by Cytochrome P450 and O-glycan biosynthesis. Unexpectedly the key eosinophil chemokine Eotaxin-1/CCL11 was found to be up-regulated when NRF2 was inhibited and down-regulated when KEAP1 was inhibited. This transcriptional regulation leads to modulation of Eotaxin-1 secretion from human lung fibroblasts under basal and inflammatory conditions, and is specific to Eotaxin-1 as NRF2 or KEAP1 knockdown had no effect on the secretion of a set of other chemokines and cytokines. Furthermore, the known NRF2 small molecule activators CDDO and Sulphoraphane can also dose dependently inhibit Eotaxin-1 release from human lung fibroblasts. Conclusions These data uncover a previously unknown role for NRF2 in regulating Eotaxin-1 expression and further the mechanistic understanding of this pathway in modulating inflammatory lung disease.

Volume 83, no. 1, p. [405–416][1], 2015. Page 408: Figure 1 should appear as shown below. ![FIG 1][2] FIG 1 [1]: /lookup/doi/10.1128/IAI.02550-14 [2]: pending:yes

Two new series of EP 4 antagonists based on naphthalene/quinoline scaffolds have been identified as part of our on-going efforts to develop treatments for inflammatory pain. One series contains an acidic sulfonylurea pharmacophore, whereas the other is a neutral amide. Both series show subnanomolar intrinsic binding potency towards the EP 4 receptor, and excellent selectivity towards other prostanoid receptors. While the amide series generally displays poor pharmacokinetic parameters, the sulfonylureas exhibit greatly improved profile. MF - 592 , the optimal compound from the sulfonylurea series, has a desirable overall preclinical profile that suggests it is suitable for further development.

The discovery of highly potent and selective second generation EP(4) antagonist MK-2894 (34d) is discussed. This compound exhibits favorable pharmacokinetic profile in a number of preclinical species and potent anti-inflammatory activity in several animal models of pain/inflammation. It also shows favorable GI tolerability profile in rats when compared to traditional NSAID indomethacin.

Interleukin 13 (IL-13) is considered to be a key driver of the development of airway allergic inflammation and remodeling leading to airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR). How precisely IL-13 leads to the development of airway inflammation, AHR, and mucus production is not fully understood. In order to identify key mediators downstream of IL-13, we administered adenovirus IL-13 to specifically induce IL-13-dependent inflammation in the lungs of mice. This approach was shown to induce cardinal features of lung disease, specifically airway inflammation, elevated cytokines, AHR, and mucus secretion. Notably, the model is resistant to corticosteroid treatment and is characterized by marked neutrophilia, two hallmarks of more severe forms of asthma. To identify IL-13-dependent mediators, we performed a limited-scale two-dimensional SDS-PAGE proteomic analysis and identified proteins significantly modulated in this model. Intriguingly, several identified proteins were unique to this model, whereas others correlated with those modulated in a mouse ovalbumin-induced pulmonary inflammation model. We corroborated this approach by illustrating that proteomic analysis can identify known pathways/mediators downstream of IL-13. Thus, we have characterized a murine adenovirus IL-13 lung model that recapitulates specific disease traits observed in human asthma, and have exploited this model to identify effectors downstream of IL-13. Collectively, these findings will enable a broader appreciation of IL-13 and its impact on disease pathways in the lung.

A new series of EP4 antagonists based on a quinoline acylsulfonamide scaffold have been identified as part of our on-going efforts to develop treatments for chronic inflammation. These compounds show subnanomolar intrinsic binding potency towards the EP4 receptor, and excellent selectivity towards other prostanoid receptors. Acceptable pharmacokinetic profiles have also been demonstrated across a series of preclinical species.

Neuropeptide S (NPS) and its receptor (NPSR) are thought to have a role in asthma pathogenesis; a number of single nucleotide polymorphisms within NPSR have been shown to be associated with an increased prevalance of asthma. One such single nucleotide polymorphism leads to the missense mutation N107I, which results in an increase in the potency of NPS for NPSR. To gain insight into structure-function relationships within NPS and NPSR, we first carried out a limited structural characterization of NPS and subjected the peptide to extensive mutagenesis studies. Our results show that the NH(2)-terminal third of NPS, in particular residues Phe-2, Arg-3, Asn-4, and Val-6, are necessary and sufficient for activation of NPSR. Furthermore, part of a nascent helix within the peptide, spanning residues 5 through 13, acts as a regulatory region that inhibits receptor activation. Notably, this inhibition is absent in the asthma-linked N107I variant of NPSR, suggesting that residue 107 interacts with the aforementioned regulatory region of NPS. Whereas this interaction may be at the root of the increase in potency associated with the N107I variant, we show here that the mutation also causes an increase in cell-surface expression of the mutant receptor, leading to a concomitant increase in the maximal efficacy (E(max)) of NPS. Our results identify the key residues of NPS involved in NPSR activation and suggest a molecular basis for the functional effects of the N107I mutation and for its putative pathophysiological link with asthma.

The anaphylatoxin C3a is an important immune regulator with a number of distinct functions in both innate and adaptive immunity. Many of these roles have been ascribed to C3a based on studies in mice genetically modified to lack its precursor, C3, or its receptor, C3aR. However, other presumed functions of C3a are based on results obtained with a recently described small molecule ligand of C3aR, SB 290157. Although this compound was originally described as an antagonist and appears to act as such in some systems, it has recently been shown to have effects that cannot be explained by simple antagonism of C3aR. In the current study, SB 290157 is shown to have full agonist activity on C3aR in a variety of cell systems, including a calcium mobilization assay in transfected RBL cells, a β-lactamase assay in CHO-NFAT-bla-Gα16 cells and an enzyme-release assay in differentiated U-937 cells. On the other hand, the compound lacks agonist activity in guinea pig platelets, cells known to express C3aR at very low levels. SB 290157 agonism of C3aR is consistent with recent discrepant data obtained using this molecule. These results caution against attributing novel roles to C3a based on data obtained with SB 290157 and highlight a continuing need for the identification of true small molecule C3aR antagonists.

The enzymatic activity of the Na,K-ATPase, or sodium pump, is modulated by members of the so-called FXYD family of transmembrane proteins. The best characterized member, FXYD2, also referred to as the gamma subunit, has been shown to decrease the apparent Na+ affinity and increase the apparent ATP affinity of the pump. The effect on ATP affinity had been ascribed to the cytoplasmic C-terminal end of the protein, whereas recent observations suggest that the transmembrane (TM) segment of gamma mediates the Na+ affinity effect. Here we use a novel approach involving synthetic transmembrane mimetic peptides to demonstrate unequivocally that the TM domain of gamma effects the shift in apparent Na+ affinity. Specifically, we show that incubation of these peptides with membranes containing alphabeta pumps modulates Na+ affinity in a manner similar to transfected full-length gamma subunit. Using mutated gamma peptides and transfected proteins, we also show that a specific glycine residue, Gly-41, which is associated with a form of familial renal hypomagnesemia when mutated to Arg, is important for this kinetic effect, whereas Gly-35, located on an alternate face of the transmembrane helix, is not. The peptide approach allows for the analysis of mutants that fail to be expressed in a transfected system.

The Na,K-ATPase, or sodium pump, is a ubiquitously expressed membrane-bound enzyme that controls the transmembrane (TM) gradients of sodium and potassium ions in animal cells. The enzyme comprises two subunits, alpha and beta, and in the kidney, is also associated with a small single-spanning membrane protein, the gamma subunit. This 65 amino acid residues protein has been linked to a form of dominant renal hypomagnesaemia resulting from substitution of a highly conserved glycine residue (Gly41) to arginine residue. In order to characterize the quaternary structure of the gamma subunit, and effects of the G41R mutation thereupon, we synthesized a series of peptides (wild-type and mutant) that span the gamma subunit TM region. Using circular dichroism spectroscopy, we show that the 32-amino acid residue peptides are random coils in aqueous buffer but spontaneously adopt an alpha-helical conformation in the presence of detergent micelles (sodium dodecyl sulfate, SDS, and perfluorooctanoate, PFO). Furthermore, fluorescence resonance energy transfer experiments, combined with polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, demonstrate that while gamma-TM does not self-associate in SDS, it forms oligomers in PFO, a detergent that tolerates relatively weak associations between membrane proteins. Importantly, oligomerization of gamma-TM is abrogated in a peptide that contains either the disease-causing mutation G41R, or the more conservative mutation G41L. On the other hand, a peptide that contains a Gly-to-Arg substitution on a different face of the helix, at position 35, retains its ability to oligomerize. Our results provide evidence for a link between renal hypomagnesaemia and gamma subunit oligomerization.

We describe a rapid method for the expression and purification of two hydrophobic protein constructs derived from the membrane domain of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), the protein associated with cystic fibrosis. The proteins have no sequence homology but are both predicted to contain two membrane-spanning segments. The protocol involves the expression of CFTR constructs as thioredoxin fusion proteins in Escherichia coli, followed by partial purification by affinity chromatography, removal of the thioredoxin moiety by proteolytic cleavage in the presence of detergent, and final purification by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. The method yields milligram amounts of purified constructs that spontaneously insert into detergent micelles in alpha-helical conformation. We predict that this protocol will be applicable to a variety of proteins of similar size and hydrophobicity.

Using a helix-loop-helix construct consisting of the adjacent transmembrane segments 3 and 4 of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) labeled with pyrene at both N and C termini, we describe a system for the study of intramolecular helix-helix interactions within a polytopic membrane protein. Through measurement of pyrene excimer band intensity as a determinant of helix-helix proximity, we show that the helices retain tertiary contacts in detergent micelles. Notably, the nature of the micellar detergent can alter the stability of these contacts, with perfluorooctanoate highly supportive, lysophosphatidylcholine and lysophosphatidylglycerol somewhat less tolerant, and SDS largely intolerant of such interactions. This construct is further employed to study the role of the acyl chain length of micellar detergents in modulating interhelical packing; detergents having acyl chains of 9 carbons display the greatest extent of helical packing. These results provide important information regarding the role of lipids on membrane protein folding and conformation as well as demonstrate the usefulness of a pyrene-based system in studying the forces that govern interhelical packing.

The structural analysis of membrane proteins has long been hampered by the hydrophobic nature of these proteins. Our approach to the problem has involved the use of small double-spanning membrane peptides inserted into detergent micelles. Specifically, we have focused on a peptide, TM 3–4, derived from CFTR, the membrane channel associated with cystic fibrosis (CF). The 88 amino acid peptide contains residues 194–241 (GLALAHFYWIAPLQVALLMGLIWELLQASAFAGLGFLIVLALFQAGLG), including the third and fourth transmembrane segments (TMs), of CFTR, and contains a His-Tag and an S-tag for purification purposes. In a previous study, we have shown that TM 3–4 spontaneously inserts into detergent micelles and adopts an a-helical conformation [1]. However, it has remained unclear whether its tertiary structure is that of a helical-hairpin loop, as would be predicted from structural models of full length CFTR. In this report, we address this question and test the effects of various detergents on interhelical packing in this construct. Specifically, we have used pyrene as a probe of the distance between the two TMs in TM 3–4. Pyrene behaves atypically for a fluorophore in that although it absorbs light at 345 nm and emits it at ~385 and ~405 nm when in its monomelic form, it can form excited dimers (excimers) which emit light at ~485 nm [2]. Therefore, the ratio of excimer fluorescence (at 485 nm) to monomer fluorescence (at 385 nm) is a measure of the extent to which pyrene molecules are able to dimerize in a given system.

The functional role of the gamma subunit of the Na,K-ATPase was studied using rat gamma cDNA-transfected HEK-293 cells and an antiserum (gammaC33) specific for gamma. Although the sequence for gamma was verified and shown to be larger (7237 Da) than first reported, it still comprises a single initiator methionine despite the expression of a gammaC33-reactive doublet on immunoblots. Kinetic analysis of the enzyme of transfected compared with control cells and of gammaC33-treated kidney pumps shows that gamma regulates the apparent affinity for ATP. Thus, gamma-transfected cells have a decreased K'ATP as shown in measurements of (i) K'ATP of Na,K-ATPase activity and (ii) K+ inhibition of Na-ATPase at 1 microM ATP. Consistent with the behavior of gamma-transfected cells, gammaC33 pretreatment increases K'ATP of the kidney enzyme and K+ inhibition (1 microM ATP) of both kidney and gamma-transfected cells. These results are consistent with previous findings that an antiserum raised against the pig gamma subunit stabilizes the E2(K) form of the enzyme (Therien, A. G., Goldshleger, R., Karlish, S. J., and Blostein, R. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 32628-32634). Overall, our data demonstrate that gamma is a tissue (kidney)-specific regulator of the Na,K-ATPase that can increase the apparent affinity of the enzyme for ATP in a manner that is reversible by anti-gamma antiserum.

The Na,K-ATPase comprises a catalytic alpha subunit and a glycosylated beta subunit. Another membrane polypeptide, gamma, first described by Forbush et al. (Forbush, B., III, Kaplan, J. H., and Hoffman, J. F. (1978) Biochemistry 17, 3667-3676) associates with alpha and beta in purified kidney enzyme preparations. In this study, we have used a polyclonal anti-gamma antiserum to define the tissue specificity and topology of gamma and to address the question of whether gamma has a functional role. The trypsin sensitivity of the amino terminus of the gamma subunit in intact right-side-out pig kidney microsomes has confirmed that it is a type I membrane protein with an extracellular amino terminus. Western blot analysis shows that gamma subunit protein is present only in membranes from kidney tubules (rat, dog, pig) and not those from axolemma, heart, red blood cells, kidney glomeruli, cultured glomerular cells, alpha1-transfected HeLa cells, all derived from the same (rat) species, nor from three cultured cell lines derived from tubules of the kidney, namely NRK-52E (rat), LLC-PK (pig), or MDCK (dog). To gain insight into gamma function, the effects of the anti-gamma serum on the kinetic behavior of rat kidney sodium pumps was examined. The following evidence suggests that gamma stabilizes E1 conformation(s) of the enzyme and that anti-gamma counteracts this effect: (i) anti-gamma inhibits Na,K-ATPase, and the inhibition increases at acidic pH under which condition the E2(K) --E1 phase of the reaction sequence becomes more rate-limiting, (ii) the oligomycin-stimulated increase in the level of phosphoenzyme was greater in the presence of anti-gamma indicating that the antibody shifts the E1 left and right arrow left and right arrow E2P equilibria toward E2P, and (iii) when the Na+-ATPase reaction is assayed with the Na+ concentration reduced to levels (/=2 mM) which limit the rate of the E1 ----E2P transition, anti-gamma is stimulatory. These observations taken together with evidence that the pig gamma subunit, which migrates as a doublet on polyacrylamide gels, is sensitive to digestion by trypsin, and that Rb+ ions partially protect it against this effect, indicate that the gamma subunit is a tissue-specific regulator which shifts the steady-state equilibria toward E1. Accordingly, binding of anti-gamma disrupts alphabeta-gamma interactions and counteracts these modulatory effects of the gamma subunit.

There has been a recent surge of interest in the literature for the anaphylatoxins C3a and C5a and their role in inflammatory diseases. While knockout studies have provided important information regarding the role of C3a in allergic diseases such as asthma ([1][1], [2][2]), the publication of a

Proline in transmembrane helical segments is thought to play specific roles in membrane protein structure and function. Yet one of its primary contributions may occur even before the segment enters the membrane.

SummaryClostridium difficile causes life-threatening diarrhea through the actions of its homologous toxins TcdA and TcdB on human colonocytes. Therapeutic agents that block toxin-induced damage are urgently needed to prevent the harmful consequences of toxin action that are not addressed with current antibiotic-based treatments. Here, we developed an imaging-based phenotypic screen to identify small molecules that protected human cells from TcdB-induced cell rounding. A series of structurally diverse compounds with antitoxin activity were identified and found to act through one of a small subset of mechanisms, including direct binding and sequestration of TcdB, inhibition of endosomal maturation, and noncompetitive inhibition of the toxin glucosyltransferase activity. Distinct classes of inhibitors were used further to dissect the determinants of the toxin-mediated necrosis phenotype occurring at higher doses of toxin. These findings validate and inform novel targeting strategies for discovering small molecule agents to treat C. difficile infection.

Despite the need for new antibiotics to treat drug-resistant bacteria, current clinical combinations are largely restricted to β-lactam antibiotics paired with β-lactamase inhibitors. We have adapted a Staphylococcus aureus antisense knockdown strategy to genetically identify the cell division Z ring components-FtsA, FtsZ, and FtsW-as β-lactam susceptibility determinants of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). We demonstrate that the FtsZ-specific inhibitor PC190723 acts synergistically with β-lactam antibiotics in vitro and in vivo and that this combination is efficacious in a murine model of MRSA infection. Fluorescence microscopy localization studies reveal that synergy between these agents is likely to be elicited by the concomitant delocalization of their cognate drug targets (FtsZ and PBP2) in MRSA treated with PC190723. A 2.0 A crystal structure of S. aureus FtsZ in complex with PC190723 identifies the compound binding site, which corresponds to the predominant location of mutations conferring resistance to PC190723 (PC190723(R)). Although structural studies suggested that these drug resistance mutations may be difficult to combat through chemical modification of PC190723, combining PC190723 with the β-lactam antibiotic imipenem markedly reduced the spontaneous frequency of PC190723(R) mutants. Multiple MRSA PC190723(R) FtsZ mutants also displayed attenuated virulence and restored susceptibility to β-lactam antibiotics in vitro and in a mouse model of imipenem efficacy. Collectively, these data support a target-based approach to rationally develop synergistic combination agents that mitigate drug resistance and effectively treat MRSA infections.