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Individual decision-making is often expressed through some combination of return or benefit within a context of risk assessment and assumption. Risk is generally defined as variability or chance of loss. Individuals are typically risk averse, where they require a greater benefit for each unit of risk in a decision. Students apply risk assessment when making financial decisions. This research models if risk aversion in making financial decisions extends to academic decisions. Prior literature discusses each decision category but does not adequately surmise correlation. In a survey of 671 university business students, the findings are that students approach risk differently between financial and academic decisions. In asking students if flipping a coin to decide patterns of paying money versus receiving money when risk is introduced, respondents are less willing to take financial risk when receiving money, but much less willing when paying money. When the question is structured to capture academic decisions, students are more willing to risk a lower grade in a class for higher reward longer-term, such as acquiring greater knowledge or improved employability.

This Notes in Brief contribution explores the use of autosomal DNA to engage college faculty and staff in a different approach to diversity and inclusion discussions, including antisemitism, on campuses. The author provides results from DNA testing and how he has used his results to discuss his common ancestry with students to build bridges as a former chair of the Diversity and Inclusion Council on his campus.

Professional organizations can play an important role in the lives and work of educators. The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore Alabama educators' experiences with membership in statewide professional organizations and to determine what benefits, if any, members feel their organizations provide them. Four main benefits that respondents identified were community, broadening of knowledge and practice, leadership opportunities, and personal growth.

Rural teacher recruitment and retention is a matter of interest for the state of Alabama as policymakers look to understand teacher shortages in rural schools across the state. How teachers are prepared to teach in rural schools is an essential part of rural teacher recruitment and retention. Preservice teachers need exposure to rural contexts as a part of their teacher preparation programs. This study examined how teacher preparation programs in Alabama are integrating rural-specific components. Among the 25 teacher preparation programs in Alabama, nearly 25% reported integrating three or more rural-specific components into their teacher preparation programs. Some teacher preparation programs also reported creating new initiatives or altering the program based on the needs of schools in their geographic area, but over two-thirds of teacher preparation programs in Alabama did not report the creation or adaptation of programs to fulfill the needs of the area. Those programs that did integrate rural-specific components reported the integration of multiple-subject certification, access for rural residents, recruitment of rural residents, rural field experiences, and rural issue-focused coursework.

A lack of access to a sequence of introductory to top-level curricula in rural schools has widened the achievement disparity between rural and urban students and influenced the number of college degree holders in rural areas. Recently, surging diversity and differentiation in income levels across nonurbanized areas can serve as determinants of the development of academically rigorous course pipelines in rural schools. This study examines differentiation in spatial access to the curriculum ladder for rigorous mathematics in three southern U.S. states during the 2017-18 school year: Alabama, Arkansas, and Mississippi. Policy variations in these states yield different effects on the sequence of rigorous mathematics courses in rural high schools. Given that the mathematics course pipeline reinforces college access, access to academically challenging courses likely outweighs the rural disadvantages of college readiness in non-urban students and the persistence of inequality in public education.

Purpose: There is little consensus in the literature regarding a) what it means for a school leader to lead with data, and b) how to measure data-informed leadership in a reliable and valid way. This study examines the psychometric properties of an operational measure intended to assess the extent to which a school leader is a data-informed school leader. The measurement invariance, reliabilities and construct and predictive validities of the "Data-Informed School Leadership Survey" (DISL Survey) are assessed using various psychometric statistical techniques. Methods: Using data collected from 155 teachers from 7 public schools in a southern state, the following psychometric statistics used to address our purpose: the Many-Facet Rasch (MFR) Model, Bayesian second-order Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), Bayesian Structural Equation Modeling--Multiple Indicators, Multiple Causes analysis (Bayesian SEM-MIMIC), and reliability analysis. Findings: Results show an adequate fit from all MFR, Bayesian CFA, and MIMIC models and a high reliability (Cronbach [alpha] = 0.98). The DISL Survey instrument exhibits sound psychometric properties. Results likewise confirm the value of using MFR modeling and Bayesian methods to examine the psychometric properties of DISL Survey as a means of improving educational leadership measures. Implications for Research and Practice: Data from this study confirm the validity and reliability of the "Data-Informed School Leadership Survey" (DISL Survey) as an instrument to assess the strengths and weaknesses of Data-Informed School Leadership (DISL) and as a means for providing feedback for improving such leadership. Heretofore a measure for assessing this leadership was non-existent.

The aim of this paper is to explore high school students' critical consciousness development in the context of youth participatory action research (YPAR) focused on food security at an alternative school in Alabama. The YPAR project took place in an elective agriscience class with 10 students (Seven Black, two white, one Latino) who were in the 10th to 12th grades. Utilizing data from researcher notes, classroom observations, and archival classroom documents, we present students' YPAR project outcomes to share their research-driven solutions to food insecurity in their community. Vignettes of classroom dialogue are also constructed to illustrate moments of reflection in the YPAR context about food security. We present three "critical moments," or instances of social analysis, to illustrate how students' individual-level attributions occurred alongside teacher dialogue and student-led investigation of structural inequities in the community. Findings illustrate how students' nonlinear critical consciousness development consisted of reliance on individual-level attributions in classroom dialogue co-occurring with systems-thinking activities and other YPAR project outcomes. This paper has implications for research on the imperfect and wavering nature of adolescent critical consciousness development in YPAR.

Although School based agricultural education (SBAE) teachers have a variety of responsibilities within a comprehensive program, supervised agricultural experience (SAE) programs are considered an intracurricular component. Unfortunately, the ability for teachers to plan for and facilitate SAEs has been reported as lacking. The purpose of this study was to identify the current perceptions, barriers, and implementation of current middle school SAEs in the Southeast United States, which was carried out by a modified Delphi approach to reach consensus on the perceptions, barriers, and implementation of middle school SAEs from a panel of experts. After three rounds, 18 items achieved consensus related to perceptions of Middle School SAE integration, 19 items outlining barriers for Middle School SAE implementation, and 22 items indicating best practices for Middle School SAE integration. When we consider the uniqueness of middle school SBAE programs, the overall list of perceptions, barriers, and best practices is of great value for future implementation as additional programs are added. Recommendations for practice begin with purposeful professional development opportunities specific for middle school SBAE teachers.

As agricultural education propels itself into the 21st century, a focus on Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education has been prioritized. While STEM integration has been held in high regard, many employers claim that students lack the necessary STEM-based skills to be successful in an entry-level position. In addition, STEM achievement of agricultural education students has not been consistent. This study aimed to ascertain the perceptions of Alabama and Georgia CTE administrators employed in school districts with agricultural education programs on the importance of integrating individual STEM skills into Agriculture, Food, and Natural Resource (AFNR) pathways. In this descriptive correlational study, 129 CTE administrators were emailed a survey through Qualtrics to rate 62 STEM-based AFNR standards using a five-point Likert-type scale. Results of the study suggested that most CTE administrators valued all assessed STEM-based AFNR standards as Very Important or Extremely Important. A mixed model was used to determine any statistical differences in importance ratings between Alabama and Georgia and among pathway scores. AFNR pathways with the highest importance ratings included the Animal Science Pathway, Plant Systems Pathway, and the Food Products and Processing Pathway. AFNR pathways with the lowest ratings included the Power, Structural, and Technical systems pathway and the Biotechnology pathway. No statistical differences were found between states, suggesting consistency between CTE administrators in these two states. These results suggested that CTE administrators value STEM and that agricultural educators should ensure STEM is integrated into their course curriculum. [Note: The page range (23-39) shown on the PDF is incorrect. The correct page range is 40-57.]

Rural schools are unique in the challenges they face; therefore, it follows that the policies to address the challenges should also be unique and not adhere to the "one size fits all" mentality. This research uses a qualitative approach and takes the bold step to seek the input of teachers who work in rural schools for suggestions on how to solve challenges found in rural schools. Eight teachers from seven rural Alabama schools across seven different districts were convened in multiple focus groups organized around four themes--federal policy, state policy, local policy, and community partnerships. The findings from this study shed light on how "one size fits all" policies, which are often created by policymakers with an "urban" mindset, affect rural schools. Additionally, the study inspired a "rural school policy playbook" that includes recommendations for local, state, and federal policy changes to address the needs of rural schools. The solutions shared by the rural teachers we interviewed represent only the tip of the iceberg. Yet, they are important because they shed light on feasible solutions that could help address the contemporary challenges rural schools face.

Compared to all other options, homeschooling provides parents with the most control over their children's educational experiences. The COVID-19 pandemic led to a surge in the U.S. homeschool population. Black families had the largest increase in home educators from 3.3% to 16.1% between April 2020 and October 2020. The emerging literature on Black home education has focused almost entirely on urban areas. This paper presents findings from a pilot study designed to begin to address the omission of rural setting representation in Black home education research literature. This qualitative study employed conceptual frameworks that value Black women's ways of knowing (e.g., Black Feminist Theory, Endarkened Feminist Epistemologies, and Critical Race Theory) to emphasize the role of participating mothers who represented a single-parent household or a household where the mother maintained primary responsibility for the home education of children.

There is social and collaborative value in a diverse student body, faculty, and staff. Despite this, universities are slow to establish evidence-based fiscal initiatives to increase representation and retention. We review inequitable financial practices in American higher education, including in endowments, tuition and annual giving, athletics, and research and innovation. We discuss fiscal initiatives that promote diversity, equity, justice, and inclusion (DEJI) while maintaining or increasing return on investment. Historical inequities are discussed in the context of institutional standards and methods of restructuring for DEJI success. A case-study of two Very High Research Activity Institutions in Alabama is used to demonstrate areas of improvement. Restructuring for an equitable, fiscally responsible, sustainable university system is feasible but requires changes to current standards.

We report findings from an interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) study of transgender and gender non-conforming (TGNC) college students' perceptions of their on-campus experiences. Participants reported their lived experiences of campus culture at PWIs Deep South. The data was viewed through a minority stress theory framework. Four major themes emerged: (1) supports for students; (2) barriers for students; (3) undergoing personal change; and (4) influencing systemic change.

Preschool aged children's social and emotional adjustment impacts their behavior across settings. Providing high-quality early intervention services that enhance social and emotional skills can help prepare children for formal schooling and improve social and behavioral outcomes. The summer prior to Kindergarten presents a unique opportunity for community-based settings to implement social and emotional learning initiatives. One program that has been found to be efficacious in increasing social and emotional competence and reducing problem behaviors with younger populations is the Preschool Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (Preschool PATHS) program. The purpose of this study was to examine implementation fidelity and social validity of the Preschool PATHS program offered in a community-based setting in the summer. Findings suggest that agency staff can independently implement the Preschool PATHS program with fidelity. Furthermore, ratings revealed that the intervention is socially valid and deemed acceptable by agency staff. The results are presented along with implications for future practice.

This study seeks to share teachers' and principals' voices from middle schools in the Southeastern United States who are attempting to help their students achieve academic success. Obtaining a snapshot of middle schools in the Southeastern United States provides opportunities to recognize trends and identify challenges about the current implementation of middle level programs and practices related to academics. The last large-scale survey was completed over 10 years ago (McEwin & Greene, 2010, 2011) and was focused on principal voices only. When attempting to assess the level of implementation of various school improvement efforts or to gain a deeper understanding of the challenges faced daily in the classroom, the voices of teachers and principals are powerful voices that must be heard. Among other results, educators called for more meaningful collaboration among elementary and middle schools to address gaps in content and skills, and a better focus on educating the whole child in their schools. Implications and future directions are discussed.

Family child care (FCC) is uniquely positioned to address challenges with insufficient early care and education supply and access in the United States. FCC programs were steadily declining before COVID-19, and many child care programs, both center- and home-based, were at risk of closure early in the pandemic. This study examines closure among Alabama FCC providers during COVID-19. Specifically, we examine the timing and predictors of FCC providers' closure using discrete time-hazard modeling. We analyze administrative data for the 788 FCC programs licensed in March 2020. Over the following 28 months, FCC closure risk was closely linked with COVID-19 disease spread trends. Providers who participated in child care subsidy or national accreditation had lower closure risk than those who did not. The protective effects of subsidy participation were amplified in lower-opportunity communities. Results have implications for mitigating FCC decline and identifying resources to support FCC providers' continued operation.

Higher education institutions in developing countries encountered several challenges and barriers when attempting to transition to e-learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. The objective of this study is to ascertain the perspectives of students regarding e-learning by examining the many aspects that impact their inclination to adopt e-learning in the Albanian setting during the COVID-19 pandemic. The researchers chose to utilize the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to examine the behavioural intentions of a total of 482 students who were currently enrolled at "Fan S. Noli'' University. The utilization of Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) has been employed for the purpose of data elaboration. The research discovered that the variable "Attitude towards Use" had a direct influence on students' Behavioural Intention towards e-learning during the COVID-19 epidemic. The variable "Perceived Usefulness" did not have a statistically significant impact on the students' Behaviour Intention. Additionally, the results showed that the students have adapted quickly to the online platform, which has led to a wide acceptance of its usefulness, and this was reflected in a favorable attitude towards its use. The conclusions of this research are important indicators for the enhancement and perspective of the e-learning process in Albanian high education institutions, as they emphasize the importance of identifying and comprehending various factors related to e-learning in Albania. The findings of this study have the potential to provide universities and policymakers with useful insights into the e-learning process, particularly in developing contexts.

Technology has inserted itself into everyday life. This includes the classroom and instructional practices; however, veteran teachers face unique circumstances with technology. Veteran teachers are looking for leadership in the face of current technological changes. Using a descriptive qualitative approach, we examined the current use of technology in veteran teachers' classrooms in rural Northwest Alabama. Forty veteran teachers answered an online survey about their perceptions of technology in daily instruction, and 12 were selected via purposeful sampling to complete an interview to expound on the survey responses. Findings revealed that these veteran teachers wanted more administrative support, copious yet practical professional development sessions, and removing as many barriers as possible.

Relative to the theme of this journal edition, "Leadership in a Time of Change," one of the most challenging changes in school leadership recently has been finding qualified teachers to teach in P-12 classrooms. Teacher turnover in P-12 schools has increased significantly (Simon & Johnson, 2015), contributing to the teacher shortage in the United States. This shortage of teachers has necessitated the employment of more teacher candidates from non-traditional teacher certification pathways. Researchers report that teachers from non-traditional certification pathways are more likely to leave teaching than fully prepared teachers. Thus, retention of teachers would help solve the teacher shortage problem. Therefore, it is important to determine what working conditions and support systems in schools will encourage non-traditional certification pathway teachers to stay in the profession. This information is critical to educational leaders trying to maintain a faculty that is well-equipped to utilize best-practice instruction to meet the needs of students. Students also benefit from the stability of relationships with teachers who stay in their teaching positions over time. Qualitative, this grounded study findings indicate that strong, positive relationships that support teachers from all levels of the organization are key to retaining teachers from non-traditional preparation pathways. Initiatives that help to build and maintain strong collective efficacy among teachers can also aid in retaining alternatively certified teachers. This study offers a working, grounded theory of teacher retention and suggests implications for practice and future research.

This quantitative survey study aimed to identify differences between school counselors' and administrators' perceptions of the school counselors' role and if demographic criteria of years of experience, years in education, enrollment size, and grade level impacted these perceptions. Currently employed school counselors and administrators in Alabama with at least one year of experience were recruited to participate in this study. The School Counseling Activity Rating Scale (SCARS) (Scarborough, 2005b) and SCARS Modified (Lane et al., 2020) instruments were utilized. Results were analyzed by comparing descriptive statistics and performing a factorial ANOVA and multiple regression. Results of the ANOVA suggest that discrepancies exist between how school counselors and administrators view the preferred role of the school counselor but were not statistically significant in how the groups perceive the fundamental role of the school counselor. The results of the multiple regression were inconclusive and suggested additional research. Implications for school counselors and administrators aim toward opportunities for advocacy and leadership through professional development, training, and collaboration.

In today's world, Principal Preparation Programs (PPPs) need to be innovative in helping principal candidates be more prepared to lead in changing times, but first, they must receive certification successfully. Completing the Praxis exam is the final requirement to gain certification as an instructional leader in Alabama and is often a stressful time for many. A mixed-methods study was conducted to investigate the problem of principal candidates struggling with the Praxis exam and find ways to support them by utilizing retrieval practice using the theoretical framework of Transfer Appropriate Processing (TAP). An invitation to participate was sent to all students in their last course in the instructional leadership program at one university. Then 30 participants were randomly placed into one of three cohorts: testing, testing with collaboration, or random. Online practice exams were purchased through a small seed grant. Quantitative data consisted of scores from online practice tests at three testing points. A significant difference was found between the practice testing and random groups. Qualitative data from an open-ended survey at the end of the experience revealed that participants increased their confidence and test-taking strategies and found the experience to be positive in preparing for the exam and their future leadership. The implications for PPPs are many, including the importance of providing students with opportunities for retrieval practice and collaboration. This helps not only with the testing situation but also in increasing their ability to transfer knowledge to novel situations similar to what they will face in the complex field of leadership and be better prepared to lead in changing times. Exploring innovative and virtual options for practice and collaboration is also needed for PPPs to meet the needs of online students today and help ensure they are ready to lead schools in times of change.

The global pandemic left many schools across the country content with low expectations regarding student achievement (Gross & Opalka, 2020). It seemed as though learning loss and academic struggles would become the norm for students throughout the country, particularly in mathematics. Though few states could maintain or improve math performance on their respective standardized testing, there were examples where individual schools could prevent a learning loss and improve academically from where they were from 2019 to 2022. Out of 3700 school systems, seven of the top ten systems with the highest gains were from the state of Alabama (Crain, 2022). A case study was designed around one of these school systems, referred to in this paper as The Martell School System. This study catalyzed fellow school district leaders to learn strategies that could be duplicated in other systems for school improvement. Through times of change and uncertainty, influential instructional leaders maintain high levels of expectation. Through interviews with school and district leadership, and data analysis, knowledge will be gained that will allow schools to learn from these instructional leaders and implement strategies with their students as we return to normalcy.

Future Forward is an early elementary literacy program which, through a family-school-community partnership approach, integrates one-on-one tutoring and family engagement to support literacy development at school and at home. In the 2020-21 school year, as part of an Education Innovation and Research (EIR) Mid-Phase grant, the impact of a modified Future Forward on reading achievement was tested with a randomized control study of students in nine schools. In the context of COVID-19, implementation was modified to support virtual tutoring. Although consistent in magnitude with other studies, the modified Future Forward program was not found to have a statistically significant impact on student achievement. Sample size limitations and implementation challenges, both resulting from COVID-19, hindered our ability to measure an impact. Even considering these challenges, we still found evidence that Future Forward had a positive impact on the reading achievement of Black students (0.34 standard deviations, p =0.095) and, even more so, Black male students (0.54 standard deviation, p =0.052).

Presently, there is a political attack on LGBTQ+ individuals, especially in southern states. In 2022, six southern states (Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Texas) enacted laws that prohibit discussing LGBTQ+ students or issues within P-12 schools. These laws perpetuate heteronormativity and create intolerant and unsafe educational spaces for LGBTQ+ individuals, especially students. Teacher preparation programs must begin addressing the challenges these laws present to P-12 schools. Therefore, in this article, the author discusses a qualitative research study that examined southern gay male teachers' beliefs about the intersectionality of sexuality, gender identity, and pedagogy in secondary classrooms. The author utilized queer theory as the theoretical framework. For this discussion, three important themes emerged from the data analysis: instruction, identity, and inclusivity. The study utilized individual unstructured interviews, unstructured focus group interviews, classroom observations with field notes, and a research journal. The findings offer suggestions for teacher preparation programs to consider when preparing teacher candidates for the profession.

The United States has a growing population of English learners (ELs) and a shortage of trained English as Second Language (ESL) teachers, leaving many teachers unprepared to work with ELs. As teachers turn frequently to online resources for guidance, we reviewed the available resources and professional development on departments of education websites from all 50 US states and District of Columbia related to ELs. Our research question was: What type of resources and professional development are available on state departments of education websites that a teacher of ELs might benefit from? Findings suggest a majority of states link to federal resources. About half of the states provide more robust resources, such as webinars. Approximately two-thirds of states include links to professional resources; however, there is little consistency between the states as to which outside organizations they recommend. There is no correlation between the quantity or quality of a state's resources and the EL population in the state.

Adolescents experience challenges navigating psychological, physiological, and emotional transformations. This article contributes to research into how middle school and high school environments can reinforce the needs of students through the transition from middle school to high school. In this grounded theory study, we interviewed 11 experienced, successful middle school principals in high-performing schools to explore practices and behaviors in supporting this transition. Participants noted the importance of maintaining high expectations while providing students with continuous nurturing, support, and opportunities to develop into responsible and self-sufficient young adults. These principals built positive school environments by promoting a shared vision based on regular collaboration among all stakeholder groups. Principals affirmed the middle school concept practice of exposing students to (a) rigorous, engaging, academic classes; (b) a variety of career exploration and elective course offerings; and (c) opportunities to teach positive character, soft skills, and self-advocacy. Findings reaffirmed the benefits of student-centered schools with effective administrators and teachers who seek continuous improvement, practice professional collaboration, implement student-centered programs/interventions, and make decisions based on the best interest of the students. The article concludes with implications for practice and further research.

This narrative study explored the administrative internship experiences of five assistant principals in Alabama for the purpose of better understanding how these school leaders perceived the benefits of Alabama's policy requirement for field experience in their practice. Attention towards this comparatively brief ten-day internship sought to describe the value early career practitioners placed on this experience and to better understand policy implications for instructional leaders. Through individual, semi-structured interviews with assistant principals from rural, suburban, and urban locales, this study asked 1) How do assistant principals describe their professional learning needs and 2) How do assistant principals describe the value of their administrative field experience? Findings show that participants believed practical, building level knowledge and experience was most needed in order to successfully manage their current duties. Those whose school leadership experience was limited to the ten-day internship experience expressed sediments of being underprepared for their position while those who had longer field experiences and additional leadership responsibilities prior to their assistant role, expressed greater confidence in their abilities.

Public school students in the Black Belt of Alabama suffer from food insecurity disproportionately compared with national peers. Results of a recent mixed methods study indicated food insecurity levels that were three times the national average, with very low food security an alarming 11 times the national average. In the fight against hunger in our public schools, no professionals are more valuable than the Child Nutrition Programs (CNP) staff, headed by the local CNP director. The qualitative portion of the mixed methods study solicited input from CNP directors in 14 Black Belt counties in Alabama. The recommendations from structured interviews suggest an intentional,coordinated, and multifaceted approach to fight against food insecurity in our rural public schools.

A mixed-methods study investigated the relationship between teachers within urban Title I elementary schools (e.g., high versus low performing) and their mathematics problem-solving beliefs in six constructs ("perseverance," "procedural," "conceptual," "importance," "effort," and "usefulness"). The 181 teachers of students in third to fifth grades in 26 schools (93% response rate) took the 36-item "Indiana Mathematics Belief Scale," and 11 were interviewed. Descriptive and inferential statistics and qualitative thematic analysis were conducted. No statistical difference between teachers in high and low-performing schools in their mathematical beliefs was found in any of the six constructs. The qualitative results did deepen the quantitative findings in offering insights into teachers' recognition of the importance of conceptual understanding in mathematics. The implications and directions for future research are discussed, including further inquiry on addressing professional development supports for teaching problem strategies in mathematics.