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Ilmastonmuutos on elinympäristöjen pirstoutumisen ja häviämisen ohella yksi tärkeimmistä luonnon monimuotoisuuden uhkista. Suojelualueverkostolla on tärkeä rooli luontokadon torjumisessa, mutta suojelusuunnittelun tulee huomioida ilmastonmuutoksen kaikkialle ulottuvat vaikutukset. SUMI-hankkeessa on tarkasteltu suojelualueiden lajien ja luontotyyppien altistumista maankäytön ja ilmastonmuutoksen vaikutuksille, metsien hiilensidonnan ja lahopuun määrän alueellista vaihtelua sekä suojelualueiden hoitoa muuttuvassa ilmastossa. Tuloksia on viety suoraan luonnonsuojelun toimijoiden käyttöön. Suojelualueet ovat keskeisiä lajien ja luontotyyppien säilymiselle sekä lajien siirtymiselle uusille suotuisille alueille. Vuosille 1961–2020 lasketut ilmastomuuttujat osoittavat kuitenkin, että ilmastonmuutos on jo muuttanut suojelualueiden olosuhteita. Muutokset ovat voineet vaikuttaa merkittävästi lajeihin ja ekosysteemeihin erityisesti alueilla, joilla muutos on ollut usean ilmastomuuttujan osalta voimakasta. Lajit ja luontotyypit voivat lisäksi altistua suojelualueita ympäröivien alueiden haitallisen maankäytön vaikutuksille. Esimerkiksi aapasuovyöhykkeen eteläosissa ojitukset ja kesien lämpeneminen uhkaavat aapasoiden vesitilannetta ja muita ominaispiirteitä. Pohjois-Suomen lajistoltaan arvokkaat aapasuot sen sijaan altistuvat tammikuun lämpötilan voimakkaalle muutokselle. Ilmastonmuutos ja ympäröivä maankäyttö vaikuttavat myös suojelualueiden metsälajiston säilymiseen ja lajien mahdollisuuksiin siirtyä suojelualueiden välillä. Suojelualueverkoston pinta-alaa on tärkeää kasvattaa alueilla, joilla metsälajisto altistuu molemmille uhkille. Tämä koskee etenkin maan eteläosaa, jossa maankäyttö on laajamittaista ja erityisesti kasvukauden ilmasto on lämpenemässä nopeasti. Myös suojelualueiden topografia vaikuttaa lajien säilymiseen: topografisesti vaihtelevat alueet voivat säilyttää levinneisyydeltään pohjoista metsälajistoa pidempään ja hidastaa lajien taantumista ilmaston lämmetessä. Metsäisten suojelualueiden laajentaminen tukisi sekä luontokadon että ilmastonmuutoksen torjumista: se vahvistaisi metsien hiilensidontaa ja metsälajiston monimuotoisuutta indikoivan lahopuun kertymistä. Erilaiset kaukokartoitus- ja skenaariomallinnusmenetelmät mahdollistavat paitsi ilmastoviisaiden suojelu- ja hoitotoimien suunnittelun myös niiden vaikuttavuuden seurannan. Climate is changing – do species and habitats follow the change? The final report of the project Finnish Protected Area Network in a Changing Climate (SUMI) Climate change is one of the greatest threats to biodiversity along with habitat fragmentation and habitat loss. Protected area networks have an important role in preventing biodiversity loss, but conservation planning also needs to consider the widespread impacts of climate change. The project ‘Finnish Protected Area Network in a Changing Climate’ has produced a large analysis dealing with the exposure of species and habitats of protected areas to the effects of land use and climate change, regional variation of carbon sequestration and dead wood in forests, and management of protected areas in a changing climate. Results of the project have been transferred directly to the conservation officials. Protected areas are essential in maintaining species and habitats and in supporting species dispersal to new suitable areas. Values of climate variables calculated in 1961–2020 show that the climatic conditions of protected areas have already changed. These changes may have affected species and habitats considerably, particularly in areas where several climate variables have changed significantly and simultaneously. Species and habitats may also be exposed to harmful land use around protected areas. For example, in the southern part of the aapa mire zone, ditching and warming summers threaten the water level of aapa mires and their other specific features. On the other hand, species in northern Finnish aapa mires are exposed to rapidly changing January temperatures. Climate change and surrounding land use also affect the survival of forest species in protected areas and the possibilities for species movement between protected areas. It is important to enlarge the protected area network of forests particularly in regions where forest species are exposed to both threats of climate change and land use. This is important particularly in southern Finland where land use is large-scale, and climate of growing season is warming rapidly. Moreover, the topography of protected areas affects species survival: topographically variable protected areas may preserve northern forest bird species longer and restrict the decline of species in a warming climate. Enlarging forested protected areas supports both mitigating biodiversity loss and climate change: it would strengthen carbon sequestration of forests and increase dead wood volume, which is crucial for forest species diversity. Different remote sensing and scenario modelling methods enable not only the planning of climate-wise conservation and management actions but also the monitoring of their effectiveness. Klimatet förändras – hinner arterna och naturtyperna med? Slutrapport för projektet Naturskyddsnätverket i ett föränderligt klimat (SUMI) Tillsammans med fragmenteringen och förlusten av livsmiljöer är klimatförändringen ett av de främsta hoten mot den biologiska mångfalden. Nätverket av skyddade områden spelar en viktig roll för att bekämpa naturbortfall, men naturskyddsplaneringen måste ta hänsyn till de utbredda effekterna av klimatförändringen. Projektet Naturskyddsnätverket i ett föränderligt klimat (SUMI) har producerat en omfattande analys av hur arter och naturtyper i skyddade områden påverkas av markanvändning och klimatförändringen, den regionala variationen av skogarnas kolbindning och mängden död ved samt skötsel av skyddade områden i ett föränderligt klimat. Resultaten av projektet har erbjudits till direkt bruk för naturvårdsaktörer. Naturskyddsområden är centrala för bevarandet av arter och livsmiljöer samt för att arter skall kunna förflytta sig till nya gynnsamma områden. Klimatvariabler som beräknats för åren 1961–2020 visar dock att klimatförändringen redan har förändrat förhållandena i naturskyddsområdena. Dessa förändringar har redan kunnat påverka arter och ekosystem avsevärt, särskilt i de områden där förändringen i flera klimatvariabler varit stor. Arter och livsmiljöer i naturskyddsområden kan också utsättas för effekterna av skadlig markanvändning i omkringliggande områden. Till exempel i de södra delarna av aapamyrzonen hotas vattensituationen och karaktärsdrag typiska för aapamyrar av uppdikning och allt varmare somrar, medan de värdefulla aapamyrarna i norra Finland utsätts för en kraftig temperaturförändring i januari. Klimatförändringen och den omgivande markanvändningen påverkar också bibehållandet av skogsartssammansättningen i naturskyddsområden och möjligheterna för arter att förflytta sig mellan skyddade områden. Det är viktigt att utöka ytan av naturskyddsområden där skogsartssammansättningen är utsatt för bägge hoten. Detta gäller särskilt i södra delen av landet, där markanvändningen är omfattande och klimatet särskilt under växtsäsongen snabbt blir allt varmare. De skyddade områdenas topografi påverkar också bevarandet av arter: topografiskt varierade områden kan längre bibehålla skogsarter med en nordligare utbredning och bromsa minskningen av arter då klimatet blir varmare. Utvidgandet av skyddade skogsområden skulle stödja kampen mot både naturbortfall och klimatförändringen: det skulle stärka kolbindningen i skogarna men också ansamlingen av död ved, vilket i sig antyder en hög mångfald av skogsarter. Olika metoder för fjärranalys och scenariomodellering möjliggör inte bara planering av klimatsmarta skydds- och skötselåtgärder, utan även uppföljning av deras effektivitet.

Quality control in heat treatment of steel is often conducted after the treatment. Failure to confine within the specified range of mechanical properties may lead to wasted energy and production resources. Performing quality control in-line in the heat treatment process allows for early detection and possibility to react to changes in the process. The prospects of utilizing the change in the electromagnetic (EM) properties of steel, as means for quality control, is investigated in this paper. The focus is on the tempering process of hardened SS2244 (42CrMoS4) steel. The tempering takes the hardness of the steel from approximately 600 HV down to around 400 HV. The EM signature of the steel is recorded during the tempering process. This is later compared to results from more traditional means of material characterization, such as Laser Scanning Microscopy, X-ray Diffractometry and Vickers microhardness measurement. This initial study shows clear indications of precise detection of the hardness through EM properties during tempering process of selected material.

Additional file 1: Figure S1 The development of the forest age class distribution in the Vanajavesi catchment area over the simulation period 2012-2100. Figure S2 The simulated (a) and measured (b) mean age class distribution in the study area in the beginning of the simulation period. The simulated and measured estimates represent the Vanajavesi catchment in 2012-2016 and the surrounding Kanta-Häme region in 2009-2013 (Natural Resources Institute Finland 2020), respectively.

Background Increasing the use of forest harvest residues for bioenergy production reduces greenhouse emissions from the use of fossil fuels. However, it may also reduce carbon stocks and habitats for deadwood dependent species. Consequently, simple tools for assessing the trade-offs of alternative management practices on forest dynamics and their services to people are needed. The objectives of this study were to combine mapping and simulation modelling to investigate the effects of forest management on ecosystem services related to carbon cycle in the case of bioenergy production; and to evaluate the suitability of this approach for assessing ecosystem services at the landscape level. Stand level simulations of forest growth and carbon budget were combined with extensive multi-source forest inventory data across a southern boreal landscape in Finland. Stochastic changes in the stand age class distribution over the study region were simulated to mimic variation in management regimes. Results The mapping framework produced reasonable estimates of the effects of forest management on a set of key ecosystem service indicators: the annual carbon stocks and fluxes of forest biomass and soil, timber and energy-wood production and the coarse woody litter production over a simulation period 2012–2100. Regular harvesting, affecting the stand age class distribution, was a key driver of the carbon stock changes at a landscape level. Extracting forest harvest residues in the final felling caused carbon loss from litter and soil, particularly with combined aboveground residue and stump harvesting. It also reduced the annual coarse woody litter production, demonstrating negative impacts on deadwood abundance and, consequently, forest biodiversity. Conclusions The refined mapping framework was suitable for assessing ecosystem services at the landscape level. The procedure contributes to bridging the gap between ecosystem service mapping and detailed simulation modelling in boreal forests. It allows for visualizing ecosystem services as fine resolution maps to support sustainable land use planning. In the future, more detailed models and a wider variety of ecosystem service indicators could be added to develop the method.

This paper presents a new approach to climate change impact and adaptation analysis within a risk framework. We test the feasibility of applying impact models for representing three aspects of potential relevance for policy: (i) sensitivity – examining the sensitivity of the sectors to changing climate for readily observable indicators; (ii) urgency – estimating risks of approaching or exceeding critical thresholds of impact under alternative scenarios as a basis for determining urgency of response; and (iii) response – determining the effectiveness of potential adaptation and mitigation responses. By working with observable indicators, the approach is also amenable to long-term monitoring as well as evaluation of the success of adaptation, where this too can be simulated. The approach involves the construction of impact response surfaces (IRSs) based on impact model simulations, using sectoral impact models that are also capable of simulating some adaptation measures. An IRS is constructed from an analysis of the modelled sensitivity of an impact indicator of interest to systematic changes in key drivers (e.g. temperature and precipitation) and the resulting impact variable is plotted as a surface comprising contour lines of equal response over a wide range of perturbations. This facilitates analysis of model behaviour across many possible future conditions. IRSs can also be combined with probabilistic projections of climate change to estimate the likelihood of exceeding certain critical thresholds of impact. An important step here is the identification of such critical thresholds, which are meaningful limits of tolerance for the functioning of the system and typically requiring expert advice from key stakeholders. Two examples are shown that illustrate the types of analyses to be undertaken and their potential outputs: risks of crop yield shortfall in Finland (Pirttioja et al. 2019) and impact risks for water management in a Portuguese reservoir (Fronzek et al., in prep.). Three challenges require special attention in this new modelling exercise: (a) ensuring the salience and credibility of the modelling conducted, through engagement with relevant stakeholders, (b) co-exploration of the capabilities of current impact models and the need for improved representation of adaptation and (c) co-identification of critical thresholds for key impact indicators and effective representation of uncertainties. The approach is currently being tested at national scale in Finland in the Adapt-FIRST project (https://www.syke.fi/projects/adapt-first), using models of water resources, agriculture, forest productivity, nature recreation and human health to address multiple climate-related hazards such as droughts, floods, heat and forest fires and their interaction with mean changes in climate. Impact likelihoods will be estimated for regions in Finland, contributing to a national risk assessment to support adaptation policies. This approach could be a useful device for indicating the level of urgency for action, whether by adaptation to ameliorate the risk or mitigation to avert the hazard. ReferencesFronzek et al. (in prep.) Estimating impact likelihoods from probabilistic projections of climate and socio-economic change using impact response surfaces.Pirttioja et al. (2019) Using impact response surfaces to analyse the likelihood of impacts on crop yield under probabilistic climate change. Agr Forest Meteorol 264:213-224.

Browning of surface waters due to increased terrestrial loading of organic carbon is observed in boreal regions. It is explained by large scale changes in ecosystems, including decrease in sulphur deposition that affects soil organic matter solubility, increase in temperature that stimulates export of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) from organic soils, and increase in precipitation and thus runoff. Land use changes and forestry measures are also observed to be one reason for increased transport of DOC. The effects of brownification extend to ecosystem services like water purification, but also freshwater productivity through limiting light penetration and creating more stable thermal stratification. We studied past trends of organic carbon loading from catchments based on observations since early 1990’s. We made simulations of loading by the physical Persist and INCA models to three small catchments at the Lammi LTER area. We upscaled simulations to the Kokemäenjoki river basin (17 950 km2). Even though river processes did not play a role in small catchments, they had influence on DOC concentration at the whole river basin. Brownification was driven mainly by the change in climate and decay of organic matter in soil, with smaller impact of land use change on organic soil types. Decrease in sulphur deposition had only minor effect on brownification.