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Knowledge is needed about specific supports and barriers for successful transitions to adulthood for autistic youth, especially from the perspective of parents, who are highly involved in transition preparation. We conducted a qualitative thematic analysis of previously conducted semi-structured interviews with 39 parents of 41 autistic adolescents to identify themes related to supports and barriers; we then used Bronfenbrenner's Ecological System's Theory to aid in interpreting the themes. We identified three main supports and four main barriers to the transition to adulthood from the parent interviews. The supports and barriers represent factors to consider at each theorized ecological level. Results point to opportunities to promote person-environment fit and support the transition to adulthood for autistic youth at multiple system levels., Author(s): Jenna M. Hoffman [sup.1] , Anne V. Kirby [sup.2] Author Affiliations: (1) Ensign Therapy Group, , 92675, San Juan Capistrano, CA, USA (2) grid.223827.e, 0000 0001 2193 0096, Department [...]

Although coping plays an important role in human adaptation, surprisingly little is known about coping processes in emerging adults. This study examined the structure and function of coping in emerging adults. Using exploratory factor analysis (EFA), this study examined whether there is support for the 'coping families' framework, as outlined by Skinner and colleagues (Skinner et al. Psychological Bulletin, 129(2), 216-269 2003 (See CR75)). A total of 425 individuals (63.5% female), aged 18-31 years (M age 25.04 years), were recruited online through Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk) to complete questionnaires on demographic information, mental health, substance use behaviors, competence, and coping behaviors in response to an interpersonal problem. EFA results yielded partial support for the coping families approach in that support-seeking and problem-solving emerged as robust factors. Further, bivariate correlations suggested that coping behaviors previously associated with adaptive functioning were linked with well-being and competence, whereas coping behaviors previously associated with maladaptive functioning were significantly associated with negative outcomes., Author(s): Virginia Peisch [sup.1] , Keith B. Burt [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.59062.38, 0000 0004 1936 7689, University of Vermont, , 2 Colchester Ave., 05405, Burlington, VT, USA In his [...]

The relationship between childhood psychological maltreatment and depression is well documented in the literature. In recent years, there is a growing body of literature aiming to examine which factors are determinant in this strong relationship. However, there are no studies to present a comprehensive model of how insecure attachment styles, guilt, and loneliness joint play a role in this relationship. This study investigated parallel and serial mediation of insecure attachment styles, guilt, and loneliness in the relationship between childhood psychological maltreatment forms and depressive symptoms. Participants were 688 (458 females, 198 males, and 32 people who do not specify their gender) undergraduate students from six different universities in Turkey. The data were collected through Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale, Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, Trait Shame and Guilt Scale, UCLA Loneliness Scale, and Three Dimensional Attachment Style Scale. The data were analyzed with PROCESS version 3.5 that works as an extension of SPSS. The results confirmed both hypotheses in the study. The study revealed that emotional abuse affected loneliness through anxious-ambivalent attachment and guilt and subsequently affected depressive symptoms. In addition, emotional neglect affected loneliness through avoidant attachment and guilt and subsequently affected depressive symptoms. Therefore, insecure attachment styles, guilt, and loneliness played an important role in determining the susceptibility of childhood psychological maltreatment to depression in adulthood. The results elucidate the literature by offering a deeper understanding of the strong relationship between childhood psychological maltreatment and depression., Author(s): Deniz Guler [sup.1] Author Affiliations: (1) grid.41206.31, 0000 0001 1009 9807, Department of Counseling and Guidance, Faculty of Education, Anadolu University, , Eskisehir, Turkey Introduction > It is well-documented [...]

The purpose of this study is twofold: to evaluate the factor structure of the Auburn Differential Masculinity Index (ADMI-60) and to investigate the varied adoption of hypermasculine attitudes within a sample of 328 collegiate males (M = 19.50, SD = 1.53). Factor analytic procedures were used to determine a factor structure that provided the best fit for the data. Four dimensions emerged: dominance & aggression, sexual identity, anti-femininity, and devaluation of emotion. Cluster analytic methods were used to determine a profile structure. These clusters were compared across variables associated with the construct: hostility toward women, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms. Results indicate that a four-cluster solution was robust and well fitting, with each cluster having a unique adoption of the dimensions, Extreme Hypermasculine, Traditional Masculine, Traditional Hypermasculine, Non-Hypermasculine. Results of the study suggest hypermasculinity is not an all-or-none construct, but males can endorse varied levels, which may lead to diverse outcomes. Keywords: hypermasculinity, emerging adulthood, profile analysis, Over the past twenty-five years, there has been a growing body of literature addressing the exaggeration of traditional masculine ideology, hypermasculinity. Brannon (1976) first posited that traditional masculine ideology consisted [...]

Age-related and individual differences in adolescents' and emerging adults' stories of real-life empathic and nonempathic experiences were examined. A total of 29 adolescents (M = 15.28, SD = .99) and 31 emerging adults (M = 1 8.23, SD = .56) told stories of empathic and nonempathic life events and completed measures of authoritative parenting and dispositional empathy. Older participants recalled more empathic and nonempathic experiences overall and expressed more meaning making and prosocial engagement in their stories. Higher dispositional empathy predicted a stronger sense of self as empathic and greater prosocial engagement. Perceptions of mothers but not fathers as authoritative predicted more prosocial engagement and a stronger sense of self as empathic. These findings are discussed in relation to the development of the life story and narrative identity (McAdams, 2001), and suggest that this model can be extended in novel ways to the domain of personal empathy., Empathy is the ability and/or inclination to understand and vicariously experience another's emotional state or condition (Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Sadovsky, 2006). This matching of both emotion and cognition is the [...]

The following article presents the theoretical model of strength and vulnerability integration (SAVI) to explain factors that influence emotion regulation and emotional well-being across adulthood. The model posits that trajectories of adult development are marked by age-related enhancement in the use of strategies that serve to avoid or limit exposure to negative stimuli but by age-related vulnerabilities in situations that elicit high levels of sustained emotional arousal. When older adults avoid or reduce exposure to emotional distress, they often respond better than younger adults; when they experience high levels of sustained emotional arousal, however, age-related advantages in emotional well-being are attenuated, and older adults are hypothesized to have greater difficulties returning to homeostasis. SAVI provides a testable model to understand the literature on emotion and aging and to predict trajectories of emotional experience across the adult life span. Keywords: emotion, aging, elderly, age differences, well-being DOI: 10.1037/a0021232

A study to determine the continuities of a wide range of psychopathology from childhood into middle adulthood in a general population sample across 24 years is presented. Children with psychopathology were at more risk for meeting criteria for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV diagnoses in adulthood than those without even after 24 years.

Four studies examined the relation between trust and loneliness. Studies 1, 2, and 3 showed that trust beliefs negatively predicted changes in loneliness during early childhood (5 - 7 years), middle childhood (9 - 11 years), and young adulthood (18 - 21 years). Structural equation modeling yielded support for the hypothesis that the relation between trust beliefs and loneliness was mediated, in part, by social disengagement, which varied by age and gender. Study 4 showed that when young adults were primed for distrust rather than for trust cognitions, they showed greater withdrawal (loneliness) affect, lower willingness to disclose, and less perceived success in achieving rapport. The findings yielded support for the hypotheses that (a) low trust beliefs promote loneliness from childhood to adulthood and (b) social disengagement and cognitive schema mechanisms account for the relation.

This investigation advances theory and research regarding relationship influences on exploration in adulthood. This is accomplished by (a) identifying important characteristics of a secure base, (b) examining the influence of the presence or absence of these characteristics on exploration behavior in adulthood, and (c) identifying individual-difference factors that are predictive of the provision and receipt of secure base support. In 2 sessions, married couples (N = 167) provided reports of relationship dynamics involving exploration, and they participated in an exploration activity that was videotaped and coded by independent observers. Results indicated that the 3 identified characteristics of a secure base (availability, noninterference, and encouragement) are strongly predictive of exploration behavior, and that the provision and receipt of these behaviors can be predicted by individual differences in attachment. Implications of results and contributions to existing literature are discussed. Keywords: exploration, secure base, availability, intefference, encouragement DOI: 10.1037/a0016961

The study examines whether social capital fosters resilience among individuals who are at a high risk of developing mental distress in adulthood. Results suggest that social capital is not associated with a reduction in the probability that high-risk individuals will experience mental distress, while one form of social capital, membership in groups and associations, appears to play a protective role among low-risk individuals. Overall, our research suggests that policies aimed at increasing social capital would not be able to reduce the gap in mental health between disadvantaged individuals and the rest of the population.

The first purpose of this study was to report how many college students, 18 to 25 years of age, are classified as 'emerging adults,' 'undecideds' or 'adults.' The second purpose was to determine the relationships between emerging adults versus adults and (a) background characteristics, (b) risk-taking behaviors; (c) sensation-seeking scores, and (d) income. A survey was administered to a total of 450 students enrolled in psychology classes in a southern state. Based on responses to four questions, 186 (41%) were emerging adults, 148 (33%) undecided, and 116 (26%) adults. Adult status was not significantly associated with gender or parenthood. Adults were more likely to be African-American and low income and were less likely to consume alcohol, binge drink, smoke cigarettes, and gamble. In addition, adults had significantly lower disinhibition scores than emerging adults., INTRODUCTION Arnett (2000) proposed that individuals between approximately 18 and 25 years of age are in between adolescence and adulthood. He referred to this stage as 'conceptually, theoretically, and empirically' [...]

This study determined how youth (ages 17-21) and their parents jointly constructed and acted on goals and strategies pertinent to the transition to adulthood. Twenty parent--youth dyads were followed over an 8-month period using the qualitative action-project method. Data included their joint conversations, video recall of internal processes, self-monitoring logs, and researcher telephone monitoring. Detailed and repeated analysis of elements, functional steps, and goals resulted in the identification of an explicit joint project for each dyad that the participants saw as pertinent to the transition to adulthood. These projects referred broadly to the youth development of identity and social inclusion in the adult world and included the specific projects of career promotion, governance transfer, and parent-youth relational processes. The findings illustrate the complexity of the transition-to-adulthood process as well as its joint construction by parent and youth. Implications for practice include identifying and following the joint parent--youth transition project. Keywords: parents, youth, transition, adulthood, project

This study used a narrative approach to understand how emerging adults experience ethnicity in their everyday lives and to link ethnic identity processes with the content of how ethnic identity is experienced. Participants were 191 ethnically diverse emerging adults who completed the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) and provided a written narrative about a time at which they became aware of their ethnicity. Participants' narratives differed significantly by ethnic group and by ethnic identity status membership, as indexed by the MEIM. The results underscore the value of adopting a narrative approach to understanding the content of ethnic identity and the links between content and ethnic identity development processes. Keywords: ethnic identity, narrative, emerging adults, college

We examine 'subjective weathering' among females entering adulthood, using three waves of a national study. Subjective weathering is a social psychological component of aging that is associated with 'physical weathering' previously observed in research on physical health. We examine the influence of stressors from childhood and adolescence on subjective weathering and depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood. Childhood abuse is associated with early menarche, as anticipated in research on physical weathering. Early menarche and child abuse are in turn associated with intimate partner violence exposure in adolescence. Both early menarche and intimate partner violence are associated with early parenthood and diminish the likelihood of high school graduation. These experiences culminate in subjective weathering associated with depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood. Our findings connect physical and subjective weathering within the stress process paradigm.

Although shame plays a vital role in psychosocial functioning and development, it has also been implicated in several mental health problems, such as depression, suicidal behavior, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Given the potentially debilitating impact of shame on adjustment, an understanding of resilience in the face of this emotion is essential. The purpose of this study was to explore how adults bounce back from significant shame experiences, based on the subjective perspectives of participants. Interviews were conducted with 13 adults who recalled events or situations that elicited intense feelings of shame. Grounded theory was used in the collection and analysis of the data. In the findings, shame is conceptualized as an assault on the self, where the individual's self-concept, social connection, and sense of power and control come under attack. Individuals bounce back from this adversity through a process of self-reconstruction. This process is represented by the core category rebuilding of the self and by 5 interrelated subcategories, including connecting, refocusing, accepting, understanding, and resisting. Implications for counseling and directions for further research are discussed. Keywords: shame, emotions, resilience, recovery, psychotherapy

Due to low rates of gambling participation among older adults (65+ years), little is known about gender differences in their gambling behaviour and reasons for gambling. Also, little is known [...]

The absolute as well as differential stability in general intelligence 'g' and in verbal and arithmetic abilities are determined longitudinally for 4000+ adult male veterans. The ordinary t-test was used in order to estimate the absolute stability and the absolute scores from the recurrent tests were correlated to determine the differential stability.

Article attempts to explicate the values and similarities among the three theories in regard to what constitutes health and optimum development in adulthood.

This study examined reminiscence functions and vivid (i.e., landmark) personal memories in nine samples ranging from the teens to the nineties. Participants (n = 198) ranging in age from 18-95 years completed the Reminiscence Functions Scale (Webster, 1997) and described a vivid personal memory which was subsequently rated for frequency of recall, emotional valence, time of occurrence, impact, and thematic content. Reminiscence results showed that older adults tend to reminiscence more for social functions while younger adults tend to reminisce more for self functions. Older adults reported vivid memories that were less intimate and less negative although adults of all ages showed the 'reminiscence bump.' Significant relationships were also obtained between the content of vivid memories described and the patterns of general reminiscence behaviors.

The authors examined the structure and content of adults' sense of spiritual identity by analyzing semistructured interviews with 13 spiritually devout men and 15 devout women, ages 22 to 72. Individuals' responses to the Role-Related Identity Interview (G. T. Sorell, M. J. Montgomery, & N. A. Busch-Rossnagel, 1997b) were content analyzed and rated on the role-related spiritual identity dimensions of role salience and flexibility. Individuals were categorized as spiritually foreclosed, achieved, or in moratorium, on the basis of their motivational, affective, self-evaluative, and behavioral investments in spiritually defined roles and their reflectiveness about and behavioral changes in role-related spiritual identity. Similarities and differences within and between spiritual identity status groups were observed, suggesting a variety of ways that spiritual identity provides a sense of continuity as well as a domain for adult developmental change. Keywords: identity, identity status, spirituality, adulthood

Objective: Longitudinal analyses identified unique multidimensional classes of alcohol use and examined individuals' movement among these classes during emerging adulthood. Method: Latent transition analysis was used to identify a developmental model of alcohol use incorporating four aspects of use: use in the past year, frequency of use, quantity of use, and heavy episodic drinking. Participants were drawn from the Reducing Risk in Young Adult Transitions study (N = 1,143). Participants' alcohol use was assessed at mean ages of 18.5, 20.5, and 22.5 years. Results: Through exploratory analysis, a five-class developmental model was identified as the best description of participants' alcohol use between ages 18.5 and 22.5 years. This model consisted of five multidimensional alcohol-use latent variables: no use, occasional low use, occasional high use, frequent high use, and frequent high use with heavy episodic drinking. Analyses provided information regarding the proportion of participants in each latent class in the model at each measurement occasion and patterns of participants' movement among latent classes during the observed age period. Conclusions: Although alcohol use increased overall for study participants between ages 18.5 and 22.5, participants in lower-level alcohol-use latent classes were more likely to remain in low-level latent classes over time, and participants in moderate- and high-level latent classes were more likely to be in the frequent high use with heavy episodic drinking latent class over time. Implications for the prevention of heavy episodic drinking are discussed. (J Stud. Alcohol 67: 917-925, 2006), YOUNG PEOPLE TEND TO ENGAGE 1N HIGHER levels of substance use and other risky behaviors from the late teens through the mid-20s than at any other age period. Concerning alcohol [...]

Byline: Sarah O. Meadows (1), J. Scott Brown (2), Glen H. Elder (3) Keywords: gender; stress; social support; parents; adolescents Abstract: Stressful transitions in adolescence increase depressive symptoms, especially among girls. However, little is known about this risk as adolescents mature into young adulthood, especially about how parental support affects depression trajectories during this period. Using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, this analysis investigates the role of gender in structuring the associations among stressful life events, parental support, and depression. Females reported more depressive symptoms at the outset of the study, a rank order that persisted along declining depression trajectories into young adulthood. In addition, stress accounts for the decline in trajectories for females but not males. Support from both parents has a salubrious effect on mental health, regardless of gender, but this effect dissipates as adolescents age into adulthood. Author Affiliation: (1) Center for Research on Child Wellbeing, Office of Population Research, Princeton University, 286 Wallace Hall, Princeton, New Jersey, 08544-5804, USA (2) Department of Sociology and Gerontology, Scripps Gerontology Center, Miami University, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA (3) Department of Sociology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599 , USA Article History: Registration Date: 16/12/2005 Received Date: 15/06/2005 Accepted Date: 24/06/2005 Online Date: 18/03/2006 Article note: Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Center for Research on Child Wellbeing at Princeton University. She received her PhD in Sociology from Duke University. Her major research interests are adolescent mental health and delinquency, adult depression, marriage and health, and gender. Assistant Professor in the Department of Sociology and Gerontology, Scripps Gerontology Center, Miami University. His research interests are focused on wealth and health inequalities across the life course with particular emphasis on gender and race differences in physical and mental health. His current projects include examinations of stratification in mortality and disability across socioeconomic status, race, and gender investigation of the association between social and mental-health life course trajectories analyses of the variation in race and ethnic measurement and its social and health implications and investigation of the initiation of and changes in social security policies. Howard W. Odum Distinguished Professor of Sociology in the Department of Sociology at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. His main fields of interest are the life course, family, and social change. He is conducting longitudinal studies of the transition to adulthood, the middle years, and later life, with an emphasis on intergenerational links.

We aimed to identify demographic, health, and biomarker correlates of reaction time performance and to determine whether biomarkers explained age differences in reaction time performance. The sample comprised three representative cohorts aged 20-24, 40-44, and 60-64 years, including a total of 7,485 participants. Reaction time measures of intraindividual variability and latency were used. The measure of intraindividual variability used was independent of mean reaction time. Older adults were more variable than younger adults in choice reaction time performance but not simple reaction time performance. The most important correlates of reaction time performance after gender and education were biological markers such as forced expiratory volume at one second, grip strength, and vision. Few measures of physical or mental health or lifestyle were associated with poorer performance on reaction time measures. Biomarkers explained the majority of age-related variance in simple reaction time and a large proportion of variance in choice reaction time. We conclude that for the ages studied, biomarkers are more important than health factors for explaining age differences in reaction time performance.

It is believed that by adulthood, independent attachments to the mother and the father coalesce into a single state of mind with respect to attachment. If true, states of mind with respect to mothers and fathers should be concordant. Fifty-six young adults were administered two versions of the Adult Attachment Interview, each of which asked about their relationship with one parent. State of mind with respect to the father was significantly related to state of mind with respect to the mother, as were attachment styles regarding the two parents. Perceptions of attachment styles were not very related to corresponding states of mind but were related to inferred loving from a parent.

This article examines the relations between religiousness, spirituality, and generativity (concern for the welfare of future generations) in late adulthood using longitudinal life-course data. Religiousness and spirituality were operationalized as distinct but overlapping dimensions of individual difference measuring involvement in traditional and nontraditional religious practices, respectively. In late adulthood, both religiousness and spirituality correlated positively with overall scores on self-report and observer-based measures of generativity. However, whereas religiousness was significantly related to the communal facets of generativity, spirituality was significantly related to its self-expanding aspects. These differences were more pronounced after gender, cohort, social class, and the overlap between religiousness and spirituality were controlled. The respective relations among religiousness, spirituality, and generativity in late adulthood were also observed using religiousness scored in early, and spirituality scored in late-middle, adulthood.

The hypothesis that problems in the relationship between siblings have an effect on well-being was investigated. Qualitative data on age-near same-sex siblings were gathered through open-ended questions. Multiple regression studies that controlled for socioeconomic status and size of social support network indicated that the application of positive cognitive evaluations of sibling problems is connected to positive affect but not to negative affect. Results also showed a linkage between sibling childhood experiences and well-being in adulthood.

Community research and clinical practice have shown that alcohol and drug use and depression are interrelated. Among Hispanics, acculturation may play a role in these relationships. To investigate these relationships as well as alcohol-related problems, we interviewed 288 Puerto Rican, Dominican, and Colombian men in early adulthood. No significant differences emerged in the proportions of abstainers across the three groups. Colombians drank significantly more frequently and had more alcohol-related problems than Dominicans. Dominicans were at least risk for and least likely to have alcohol-related problems. Puerto Ricans were much more likely to use drugs than the other Hispanic men. Drug use was associated with an increased likelihood of heavy drinking which, in turn, increased the risk of drug use and depression. Acculturation decreased the risk of drug use. Results are discussed in terms of implications for community psychology research and interventions. KEY WORDS: Hispanics; depression; alcohol; drug use; adult males.

Evidence is reviewed that for older adults the period from 10 to 30 years of age produces recall of the most autobiographical memories, the most vivid memories, and the most important memories. It is the period from which peoples' favorite films, music, and books come and the period from which they judge the most important world events to have originated. Factual, semantic, general-knowledge, multiple-choice questions about the Academy Awards, the World Series, and current events from this period were answered more accurately by two different groups of 30 older adults tested 10 years apart. A cognitive theory based on the importance of transitions and several noncognitive theories are considered as explanations of this pervasive phenomenon.

A meta-analysis was conducted on 91 studies to derive a correlation matrix for adult age, speed of processing, primary - working memory, episodic memory, reasoning, and spatial ability. Structural equation modeling with a single latent common cognitive factor showed that all cognitive measures shared substantial portions of age-related variance. A mediational model revealed that speed of processing and primary - working memory appear to be important mediators of age-related differences in the other measures. However, not all of the age-related influences were mediated. An examination of quadratic age effects and correlational patterns for subsamples under and over 50 years of age revealed that (a) negative age-cognition relations were significant for the 18- to 50-year-old sample and (b) the age-related decline accelerated significantly over the adult life span for variables assessing speed, reasoning, and episodic memory.

Objective: To study the relationships between retrospective reports of physical punishment/maltreatment and rates of adjustment difficulties at age 18 in a birth cohort of New Zealand subjects. Method: Data were gathered over the course of an 18 year longitudinal study of a birth cohort of 1,265 New Zealand born children. At age 18 retrospective reports of exposure to physical punishment/maltreatment were obtained. At this time the cohort was also assessed on measures of psychosocial adjustment including juvenile offending, substance abuse behaviors, and psychiatric disorder. Results: Young people reporting exposure to harsh or abusive treatment during childhood had elevated rates of juvenile offending, substance abuse, and mental health problems. However, subsequent analysis using logistic regression methods showed that much of the elevated risk shown by this group was explained by social and contextual factors that were associated with patterns of childhood punishment/maltreatment. Nonetheless, even after control for confounding factors those reporting harsh or abusive childhood experiences were at increased risks of violent offending, suicide attempts, being a victim of violence, and alcohol abuse. Conclusion: This study leads to three major conclusions: (1) Those exposed to harsh or abusive treatment during childhood are an at-risk population for juvenile offending, substance abuse, and mental health problems; (2) Much of this elevated risk arises from the social context within which harsh or abusive treatment occurs; (3) Nonetheless, exposure to abuse appears to increase risks of involvement in violent behavior and alcohol abuse. Key Words - Physical punishment/maltreatment, Psychiatric illness, Substance abuse/dependence, Criminal offending, Longitudinal study.

Although it is widely believed that emotions vary with age, there is a dearth of information on emotional experiences in later adulthood. Several researchers think that older adults experience less emotional intensity than younger people while others have suggested that aging is accompanied by a decrease in positive affect and an increase in negative emotions. Sex similarities and differences in emotionality have also been documented. This study focuses on age and sex similarities and differences in emotional control. Three hundred and twenty seven men and women aged 19 to 92 years were administered two emotion measures. The results support previous research which suggests that the control of emotions increases with age. In evaluating sex differences in emotional control, women scored as more emotionally expressive than men, a finding which is consistent with previous research. Results are discussed in relation to socioemotional selectivity theory.

The youth in contemporary western societies faces a difficult transition from childhood state of dependence to adult maturity, in the aspects of consumption, distribution, production and reproduction. An argument is presented as to whether gender, race, clan, sexuality and disability are relevant to the nature of this transition. Adolescence is a crucial stage for the youth where oftentimes, the search for freedom and control results in rebellion. Rising youth unemployment, socio-economic and political changes are some of the contributing factors to the disrupted transition of youth in the 1990s.

We examined three community samples to determine whether stressful episodes form a context for the development of coping resources in adulthood. The first study found that 81.9% of a sample of 845 older men reported drawing upon prior experiences in coping with a recent problem. Content analysis revealed that only 22.7% drew upon similar stressful episodes; the rest drew upon problems from work, the military, illnesses, deaths, etc. The second study replicated the earlier findings in 102 men and women, ages 24 to 84, who reported on a recent low point in semistructured interviews. In addition, 75% reported long-term effects, equally split between negative, positive, and mixed effects. Those individuals who perceived advantages from the low point were significantly more likely to report positive long-term effects. The third study replicate the findings from the first two studies in a sample of 941 men and women ages 23 to 62. Path analyses showed that coping strategies differentially predicted perceived positive or negative outcomes, which in turn predicted current mastery and depression levels. While the findings are cross-sectional and causality cannot be inferred, they are nonetheless supportive of the effects of stress and coping personality.

Using data gathered prospectively, the authors examined whether transitions in two major adult social roles, marriage and parenthood, influence the risk of developing (1) DSM-III-R alcohol disorder and (2) symptoms of alcohol disorder. Additionally, the potential impact of these transitions on persistence of alcohol disorder was examined. In the study, 1,007 members (21 to 30 years old) of a large health maintenance organization located in southeast Michigan were interviewed initially in 1989, 979 of whom were reinterviewed in 1992. Incidence of alcohol disorder symptoms was significantly higher among those who remained single (RR = 2.1) or became divorced (RR = 6.0) during the follow-up period, compared to those getting or staying married. Those who were never parents through the follow-up were also at increased risk (RR = 2.5), relative to those who became parents for the first time. Similar results were obtained for the incidence and persistence of an alcohol disorder. Transitions into adult roles, such as marriage and parenthood, appear to reduce the risk of developing alcohol disorder or related symptoms in young adulthood. These transitions also reduce the likelihood that an existing alcohol disorder will persist.

At age 43, 90 women in a longitudinal study were classified on the basis of J. Loevinger's (Loevinger & Wessler, 1970) Sentence Completion Test into 3 levels of ego development: self-aware or below, conscientious, and individualistic or above. Retrospective multivariate analyses of variance showed that ego level was associated with differential personality change on scales of the California Psychological Inventory from ages 21-43. In a path analysis, verbal aptitude in high school, psychological mindedness in college, and stimulation of life path between ages 21 and 43 each independently predicted ego level at age 43. Accounts of difficult times that involved construction of new schemas (accommodation rather than assimilation) were associated with high ego level.

This study focused on beliefs about one's own compared with other people's development in adulthood. Young, middle-aged, and old adults rated person-descriptive attributes with respect to developmental change throughout adulthood for the self and most other people, controllability for self and other, desirability, degree of self-descriptiveness, relevance as a developmental goal, and typical age-timing of attribute as developmental goal. Various aspects of subjective identification with age groups were also assessed. Findings suggested 3 modes of social comparison: self-assessment reflected in congruence between self and other-ascribed developmental trajectories, self-enhancement involved in more favorable expectations for the self regarding old age, and self-improvement expressed in developmental aspirations toward higher status age groups.

This article presents a critical reading of 'A Theory of Knowledge' by Joyce Carol Oates, which appears in a recently published collection of stories about aging. The story is analyzed in terms of two ideas in current adult developmental theory, the idea of personal narrative as developed by Cohler, and the idea of generativity as developed by Erikson, Kotre, and McAdams.