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Background: A growing proportion of the population are replacing their dietary animal protein with plant protein. A particular example of this trend is the vegan diet, which excludes all food items of animal origin. However, the DIAAS score for individual plant proteins is generally lower than that of animal proteins due to an unbalanced amino acid composition and lower bioavailability. Care must therefore be taken to meet the nutritional recommendations in the daily food intake. Methods: A three-day dietary food record was carried out by 40 Danish vegans in a cross-sectional study. The data were analysed, with particular emphasis on protein requirements and the essential amino acid composition of the diet. Results: The protein recommendations were met on all three days by 60% of the participants. In contrast, 18% did not meet the protein recommendations on any of the three days and 7% met the recommendations on only one of the days. Lysine was the most limiting amino acid (only 50% met the recommendations every day) followed by the sulphur-containing amino acids (recommendations met by 67.5%), leucine and valine (recommendations met by 70%). Combining both the amount of protein and the intake of the essential amino acids showed that less than half of the participants met the recommendations on all three days (47.5%) and 35% did not meet the recommendations on any days or on one day only. Conclusion: In conclusion, our study showed that many of the participants in the present study failed to meet the daily protein intake requirements, both on single days and on all three days. Furthermore, the food intake was found to have an inadequate amino acid composition and was particularly limited by the essential amino acids lysine, the sulphur-containing amino acids, and leucine and valine. This could be ascribed to the fact that only a limited number of protein sources were consumed during a day.

The tenderness of pork loins from castrates, entire males and females was quantified with sensory analysis and measurement of instrumental texture during ageing. Furthermore, the effects of intramuscular fat (IMF), collagen content and solubility, hot carcass weights and meat percentages on tenderness were examined. Meat from castrates was significantly (p = 0.043) more tender than meat from entire males and females as assessed by trained sensory panellists. Tenderness scores were positively affected by IMF content (p = 0.008) and hot carcass weight (p < 0.001), but no effect of collagen content and solubility was found. Meat from all three genders had the same tenderisation rate during ageing (two, five, seven and ten days). It is therefore suggested that meat from entire males and females should be aged for longer than meat from castrates to obtain the same level of tenderness.

Low temperature long time (LTLT) sous-vide cooking may modify meat proteins in a way that could promote satiety. We investigated the effects of (1) cooking method (LTLT 58 °C vs. oven 160 °C), (2) LTLT holding time (17 h vs. 72 min), and (3) pork structure, LTLT 58 °C for 17 h (minced vs. roast) on appetite regulation and in vitro protein digestibility. In a cross-over study, 37 healthy men consumed four meals containing pork: LTLT-cooked roast, 58 °C, 72 min; LTLT-cooked roast, 58 °C, 17 h; and, oven-cooked roast, 160 °C to a core temperature of 58 °C and LTLT-cooked minced patties, 58 °C, 17 h. Ad libitum energy intake (EI) after three hours was the primary endpoint. Moreover, subjective appetite sensations were assessed. Protein digestibility was determined in an in vitro simulated digestion model. Ad libitum EI did not differ between the meals. Furthermore, appetite ratings were not clearly affected. LTLT cooking for 72 min increased the proteolytic rate in the early gastric phase during digestion as compared to LTLT cooking for 17 h or oven cooking. In conclusion, LTLT cooking, LTLT holding time, and pork structure did not affect ad libitum EI. However, LTLT cooking at 58 °C for 72 min seemed to enhance in vitro protein digestibility.

Background: The development of high-protein, fiber-rich foods targeting appetite control could be an efficient tool in obesity prevention.Objectives: We investigated whether ad libitum energy intake (EI), appetite, and metabolic markers in a meal context were affected by 1) fiber addition (rye bran and pea fiber) to pork meatballs, 2) the food matrix of the fiber (fiber meatballs compared with fiber bread), or 3) the protein source (animal compared with vegetable protein patties).Methods: In a crossover design, 40 healthy men [mean ± SD: body mass index (BMI; in kg/m(2)), 22.2 ± 1.9; age, 23.3 ± 2.9 y] consumed 4 test meals: a low-fiber meal consisting of pork meatballs plus wheat bread (LF meal); pork meatballs plus fiber bread; fiber meatballs plus wheat bread, and vegetable patties with a natural fiber content plus wheat bread (∼3000 kJ; protein ∼18% of energy, carbohydrate ∼50% of energy, fat ∼30% of energy; 13 g fiber in the fiber meals). Ad libitum EI after 4 h was the primary endpoint. Moreover, appetite sensations and postprandial responses of glucose, insulin, glucagon-like peptide-1, peptide YY 3-36, and plasma amino acids were measured.Results: Ad libitum EI did not differ significantly between the meals. Satiety and fullness increased 11% and 13%, respectively, and hunger and prospective intake decreased 17% and 15%, respectively, after the meal of fiber meatballs plus wheat bread compared with the LF meal (P < 0.01). Hormonal and metabolic responses did not differ between the meals. In general, plasma amino acid concentrations were higher after the fiber-rich meals than after the LF meal.Conclusions: Meals based on meatballs and bread with differences in the fiber content, food matrix of fiber, and protein source had similar effects on ad libitum EI in healthy men. However, fiber addition to pork meatballs favorably affected appetite sensations but without changes in hormonal and metabolic responses. Moreover, animal- and vegetable-protein-based

This study investigated dose-response effects of rye bran and pea fibre added to meatballs on sensory quality and subjective appetite sensations. Pea fibre or rye bran was added to meatballs in doses ranging from 3 g to 6 g dietary fibre per 100 g. In a sensory profile, a trained panel (n=9) evaluated the meatballs in terms of odour, appearance, texture and flavour attributes. In a cross-over appetite study, 27 healthy men were served five test meals. Subjective appetite sensations were assessed over a 4-hour period. The addition of rye bran to the meatballs increased the grainy odour, texture and flavour. Pea fibre resulted in a more crumbly, firm and gritty texture with increasing doses of fibre. The sensory changes followed a dose-response relationship. Subjective appetite sensations were not affected by the addition of fibre.

Flavour development and overall eating quality of pan-fried pork chops of longissimus dorsi from eight different raw meat qualities aged for 4 and 15 days were assessed by a trained sensory panel. The raw meat qualities were obtained through combinations of strategic feeding/fasting (control vs. low glycogen concentration), slaughter live-weight (84 kg vs. 110 kg), and gender (female vs. castrate). The flavour development was investigated for possible correlation with the concentrations of selected individual flavour precursors present in the raw meat: monosaccharides, IMP and degradation products, fatty acids, lactate and thiamine. Differences in precursor concentrations between the raw meat qualities were observed with feeding/fasting and ageing as the main factors with the largest influence of all experimental factors. However, the concentrations of the precursors could not explain the differences in sensory perception of the pan-fried pork chops. Overall, the differences were small.

This paper introduces the use of best–worst scaling to elicit taste-based preferences and presents a comparison of this scaling methodology with monadic preference ratings elicited on an unstructured line scale. Best–worst scaling (BWS) is a discrete choice task that forces respondents to make a discriminating choice among the samples under investigation by requiring them to select both the best and the worst option in an available (sub)set of samples. In an empirical case study that concerns consumer preferences for minced pork patties, it is found that the results from the two methods are highly correlated. However, there is some evidence to suggest that preference data elicited using best–worst scaling may better enable discovery of differences in sample preferences without being a more difficult test for consumers to take part in. Some of the advantages and disadvantages associated with the application of best–worst scaling in hedonic measurement are noted and discussed.

Danish consumers from Roskilde, a town near the Danish capital Copenhagen (n = 213), and from Holstebro, a provincial town in the north-western part of Jutland (n = 162), rated nine different samples of pork on an unstructured hedonic scale from “do not like at all” to “like very much”. The samples represented variation in raw meat quality (pH, IMF and carcass weight), muscle (LD and BF), origin (Danish/French Pay Basque), cooking method (pan/oven) and end point temperature (65 °C/75 °C). The meat was described by sensory profiling and chemical and physical analysis (pH, fat, water, colour, fatty acid composition). All the consumers preferred tender, juicy meat with a fried flavour and no off-flavours. However, within this description there were differences. The consumers from Holstebro put more emphasis on tenderness and the absence of off-flavours, while the consumers in Roskilde preferred the fried flavour. The young consumers put less emphasis on tenderness, compared with consumers aged over 30 years, but preferred instead some crumbliness in the meat. A segmentation of the consumers showed that about 6% of the consumers were only influenced by flavour attributes in their preference. In contrast, 12% of the consumers were mainly influenced by texture irrespective of flavour attributes other than sour-like taste. Most of the consumers were, however, influenced by both flavour and texture as well as appearance.

The effect of raw meat quality and cooking temperature on flavour generation in pork was investigated. The semimembranosus muscle was varied through genetics (carrier (HLY) and non-carrier (DLY) of the RN− allele) and ageing at 2 °C (2, 15, and 22 days), whereas the pan-frying temperatures were 150 °C and 250 °C. HLY gave more pronounced ‘fried’ and ‘burnt’ notes than DLY after frying. This could partly be explained by a significantly higher concentration of glucose and glucose 6-phosphate in HLY after 22 days of ageing. HLY was generally perceived as more sour, which correlated well with the measured pH of HLY, but not to the l-lactate concentration. HLY was furthermore perceived as more tender and juicier than DLY, both attributes increased during ageing. Lipid-derived aroma volatiles dominated the samples fried at 150 °C, while those from Maillard reactions mostly prevailed in the aroma profile at 250 °C.