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The analytical expressions for the cross-spectral density matrix elements of the partially coherent elegant Laguerre–Gaussian (eLG) vortex beam propagating through anisotropic turbulent plasma were derived based on the extended Huygens-Fresnel principle and used to study the changes in the polarization degree and the coherence degree of the partially coherent eLG vortex beam in the turbulent plasma. The numerical results show that the polarization degree of a partially coherent eLG vortex beam reaches a specific value (which is equal to the degree of polarization in the source plane) after a long propagation distance in the turbulent plasma. Moreover, this value is independent of the beam order, topological charge, correlation coefficient, wavelength of the source plane, anisotropy parameter, refractive index fluctuation variance, and outer and inner scales of the turbulent plasma. The results also show that with increasing distance, the coherence degree first decreases from unity and then oscillates around zero. However, this oscillation gradually disappears after traveling a long distance. Our results intuitively present the beam polarization and coherence properties through anisotropic hypersonic turbulence, which can be useful for optical communication in hypersonic turbulent environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• A phase error correction method (IFOA-JMEC) for InIRA images is proposed. • Ionospheric scintillation and atmospheric turbulence are main errors source for InIRA. • Correcting spatial-variant Error in range by dividing subblocks and interpolating. • Background atmosphere has little influence on InIRA height measurement accuracy. • Phase screen models for ionospheric scintillation and atmospheric turbulence. The interferometric imaging radar altimeter (InIRA) is a newly developed microwave remote sensing system in recent years. It is of great significance to analyze the main sources of its height measurement error through simulation, and to develop the corresponding image phase error correction methods. This can provide basis and reference for the subsequent correction of the real images phase error. In this study, according to the interaction principle between atmospheric interference and InIRA radar electromagnetic waves, the influence of background ionosphere and background troposphere on height measurement error is analyzed by introducing ionosphere and troposphere delays into echo signals respectively. The impact of ionospheric scintillation and atmospheric turbulence on the height measurement error is analyzed by building multi-layer phase screen models. Then according to the analysis results, a phase error correction method for InIRA images combined by the improved fruit fly optimization algorithm (IFOA) and the joint minimum entropy criterion (JMEC) is proposed. The image is divided into several sub-images with negligible spatial variation of phase error according to the principle of first range and then azimuth. IFOA is used to search the optimal phase compensation values iteratively to compensate the phase of all sub-images. When the joint entropy of the sub-images reaches the minimum value, the phase error correction of the whole InIRA image is completed. Experimental results show that the proposed method can correct the phase of InIRA images with inconspicuous features and polluted by weak ionospheric scintillation and atmospheric turbulence relatively quickly. After correction, the height measurement error can be reduced from decimeter level to centimeter level. The correction accuracy and efficiency of the proposed method are superior to those of the method combined by particle swarm optimization algorithm and joint minimum entropy criterion (PSO-JMEC), the method combined by genetic algorithm and joint minimum entropy criterion (GA-JMEC), the method combined by phase gradient autofocus and Map Drift (PGA-MD), and improved PGA-MD algorithm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large Eddy Simulations (LES) allow the generation of spatio-temporal fields of the refractivity index for various meteorological conditions and provide a unique way to simulate turbulence-distorted phase measurements as those from geodetic sensors. This approach enables a statistical quantification of the von Kármán model's adequacy in describing the phase spectrum and the assessment of the validity of common assumptions such as isotropy or the Taylor frozen hypothesis. This contribution shows that the outer scale length, defined using the Taylor frozen hypothesis as the saturation frequency of the phase spectrum, can be statistically estimated, along with an error fit factor between the model and its estimation. It is found that this parameter strongly varies with height and meteorological conditions (convective or wind-driven boundary layer). The simulations further highlight the linear dependency with the variance of the turbulent phase fluctuations but no dependency on the local outer scale length as defined by Tatarskii. An application of these results within a geodetic context is proposed, where an understanding and solid estimation of the outer scale length is mandatory in avoiding biased decisions during statistical deformation analysis. The LES presented in this contribution support derivations for an improved stochastic model of terrestrial laser scanners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This decade‐long study from the INTERCONF programme addresses the data gap on ocean dynamics in the Southern Hemisphere. Focusing on the Brazil‐Malvinas Confluence (BMC), we investigated the effect of temperature differences between the warm Brazil Current (BC) and the cold Malvinas Current (MC) on water vapour in the marine atmospheric boundary layer (MABL). Our results show a clear distinction: warmer BMC waters have 32% more water vapour (2 kg·m−2 on average) compared to the MC. This highlights the direct link between ocean temperatures and atmospheric processes. Analysis of radiosonde data alongside satellite measurements showed better agreement over cooler waters with lower water vapour, leading to lower variability. This suggests less atmospheric turbulence and improved data compatibility, especially for satellite retrievals such as AIRS. Comparisons between reanalysis data (CFSR), satellite sounders (AIRS) and radiosondes (RS) showed consistent air temperature profiles, with average errors within the 10% threshold for satellite measurements. While capturing humidity variations remains a challenge, especially at high concentrations (indicated by higher mean squared error values), our study highlights the reliability of satellite data, particularly over the cold BMC region. This research highlights the importance of studying the interactions between ocean fronts and atmospheric phenomena for a complete picture of Southern Hemisphere ocean dynamics. It offers valuable insights for scientists across disciplines, providing a broad perspective on the results and their significance in different contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Free space optical (FSO) communication has shown promising advantages among other wireless schemes. It provides a very high data rate, freedom from licensing, low cost of deployment and requires low power. FSO is a technology that has undergone rapid development over the last several years. These communication systems are a line-of-sight technology in which information is transmitted through the atmosphere on modulated laser beams or light-emitting diode (LED) beams. When FSO technology was first introduced, it was seen as an attractive option to bridge the "last mile bottleneck" that is present in many of today's optical fiber-based networks. As compared to existing radio frequency (RF) based wireless systems, this technology possesses multiple advantages, such as high bandwidth, license-free band use, long operational range, spatial reusability, security and immunity to electromagnetic interference. The narrow and directional characteristics of a laser beam employed in FSO enable spatial reuse and make it hard to eavesdrop, thus raising the level of security. The use of light as carrier in this technology provides immunity to electromagnetic interference. Despite its many advantages, this technology is susceptible to some weather conditions, such as fog, rain, sleet and snow, and to misalignment of transmitter–receiver terminals. Atmospheric conditions will impair the propagation of an optical signal because the propagation of light may undergo absorption and scattering. Pointing error caused by misalignment of the transceivers is another major challenge in FSO communication system. The pointing error may result in degradation or even total loss of the received signal. This error may arise because of transceiver sway, platform vibration, the motion of mobile stations, errors or uncertainties in the tracking system. Another type of pointing error is beam wandering caused by the in-homogeneity of large-scale eddies in the atmosphere (i.e., atmospheric turbulence), where the transmitted beam may deviate from its intended path. This survey paper focuses on the systems involved in the alignment of the transmitter and the receiver so that the maximum amount of power is collected by the receiver and the analysis of beam profile in various atmospheric conditions and their mitigation methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, wireless communication systems have exploded in popularity. Optical wireless technology is an excellent alternative to RF wireless, but it has high capacity, data speed, frequency, and license-free spectrum, and it is simple to implement. Optical wireless communication sends data through air using optical beams. Atmospheric turbulence degrades the functioning of free-breathing space photosensitive interaction methods by causing interruptions due to weather conditions like fog, smoke, and different pollutants. In this paper, free-space optical communications using snow and fog attenuations and Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) method is used to determine the turbulence due to the atmosphere. This method improves the data transmission during unfavorable weather conditions by changing the various parameters like receiver aperture size, the wavelength of the transmitter, etc. Furthermore it shows that decrease in air quality and instability are the double significant causes, that can degrade general usage routine, especially when it's foggy or raining heavily. The result shows that the aperture size and wavelength should be changed as per the weather condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Free space optical (FSO) systems offer an attractive and cost-effective solution for providing communication services in remote regions, as they allow secure transmission without the need for licensing and with lower deployment costs. However, the performance of FSO systems can be significantly impacted by atmospheric turbulences, creating considerable challenges to their deployment. To meet the expanding bandwidth requirements in optical networks, dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) has emerged as a viable option. The development of a 400-Gbps DWDM-FSO system with advanced modulation formats is the subject of this paper. To ensure efficient energy conservation in such a system, power consumption needs to be minimized while maintaining performance level; this calls for optimization of different components within the system. The system is made up of 10 channels and each channel can transmit data at 40 Gbps. Various modulation schemes like carrier-suppressed return-to-zero, modified duo binary return-to-zero, differential phase shift keying, and duo binary return-to-zero are studied for their impact on system performance parameters Q-factor and bit error rate (BER) in C-band around 1550 nm wavelengths. The assessment is also extended to the effects that changing FSO length, input power, and data rate have on these two parameters as well as an evaluation regarding how differing atmospheric conditions influence the FSO system's effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The large mid-infrared (MIR) spectral region, ranging from 2.5 µm to 25 µm, has remained under-exploited in the electromagnetic spectrum, primarily due to the absence of viable transceiver technologies. Notably, the 8–14 µm long-wave infrared (LWIR) atmospheric transmission window is particularly suitable for free-space optical (FSO) communication, owing to its combination of low atmospheric propagation loss and relatively high resilience to turbulence and other atmospheric disturbances. Here, we demonstrate a direct modulation and direct detection LWIR FSO communication system at 9.1 µm wavelength based on unipolar quantum optoelectronic devices with a unprecedented net bitrate exceeding 55 Gbit s−1. A directly modulated distributed feedback quantum cascade laser (DFB-QCL) with high modulation efficiency and improved RF-design was used as a transmitter while two high speed detectors utilizing meta-materials to enhance their responsivity are employed as receivers; a quantum cascade detector (QCD) and a quantum-well infrared photodetector (QWIP). We investigate system tradeoffs and constraints, and indicate pathways forward for this technology beyond 100 Gbit s−1 communication. High-resolution pulse shaping is highly sought after, but existing systems are impractical outside of laboratory settings. Here, the authors introduce a chip-scale spectral shaper that uses high-Q microresonator filter banks and inline phase control to manipulate lines at GHz-level spacing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditional flight simulation models often operate on the premise of a steady atmosphere, overlooking the complexities of actual atmospheric dynamics and the flight safety risks posed by wind disturbances, such as turbulence. To Address this oversight, the present study introduces a method for generating three-dimensional atmospheric turbulence based on spatial correlation functions. This method, rigorously validated against correlation and spectral benchmarks, guarantees isotropic properties in the synthesized turbulence fields. Through interpolation techniques, the model integrates the spatial atmospheric turbulence into the flight simulation framework effectively. The paper highlights the application of this model by examining the impact of atmospheric turbulence on the precise flight dynamics of quadcopter UAVs during aerial refueling operations. The findings demonstrate the model's pertinence not only to UAVs but also to the broader spectrum of aircraft and their operational procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Free space optical (FSO) communication reduces the last-mile bottleneck problem wherever we cannot use fiber-optic links. Performance degradation in the FSO system is mainly due to the atmospheric turbulence effect. To increase the capacity of the system wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is used. An experimental testbed is set up to investigate the performance of the DWDM-FSO system with and without crosstalk under the influence of atmospheric turbulence. For the study of the system performance, the attenuation values due to scintillation from the existing work are taken as losses. Based on the results, the FSO link length that supports the data transmission is up to 3 km for the tolerable BER of 10−9. The Q-factor value drops with increasing attenuation and link distance. Q value of the FSO system without crosstalk and with crosstalk at 2 dB is 10.64 and 6.34 for 1 km and 4 km, it is 7.94 and 4.24 respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, a model for analyzing the performance of laser-based satellite uplinks that account for beam wander and atmospheric turbulence is presented. The developed scintillation index model is a continuation of the recent works considering the effects of non-Kolmogorov turbulence on the propagation of Gaussian beams across turbulent media. We specifically concentrate on the specific regime under the tilt-corrected beam wander. The on-axis scintillation index is developed assuming an isotropic non-Kolmogorov spectrum model where the power law exponent (PLE) effective value, α , is taken to be 3 < α < 4. Within that regime, effective irradiance models for tilt-corrected beam wander are presented, using the Gamma and Gamma-Gamma distributions. Closed-form expressions of the average bit error rate (BER) are derived to evaluate the performance of the optical communication system considering coherent detection of differential phase shift keying. The obtained numerical results show the impact of the Gaussian beam radius at the transmitter, the PLE effective value, and the zenith angle on the on-axis scintillation index and the average BER of the system under consideration. Due to beam wander, the link performance in terms of scintillation index and average BER depends on the beam radius at the transmitter. With tilt-corrected beam wander the link performance becomes best at an intermediate value of beam radius. With the non-Kolmogorov turbulent medium model, the PLE effective value has a major effect on the beam radius with the best performance. The obtained results guide the choice of the optimum beam radius for best performance for each PLE effective value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article investigates the impact of atmospheric turbulence on wind farms in mountainous regions using Scale-Adaptive Large-Eddy Simulation (SALES) combined with the immersed boundary method. An array of 25 Gaussian hills was considered to mimic the mountainous terrain, and three cases were simulated: atmospheric boundary layer flow over complex terrain, 25 full-scale turbines positioned on hilltops, and 125 full-scale turbines positioned across the mountainous landscape. These simulations captured the intrinsic spatial inhomogeneity caused by the complex topographic features of mountainous terrain, challenging the assumption of horizontally homogeneous atmospheric turbulence. This study emphasizes the significance of velocity gradient dynamics and stresses on surface mounted obstacles to evaluate data quality and uncertainty. However, it also considered more detailed comparisons with other methods, validation of topographic impact using experimental work with windbreak and isolated hill, and a comprehensive analysis of the results. The findings include significantly enhanced power production at hilltop turbine locations as compared to homogeneous terrain. Although wind turbines in windward and leeward directions experienced a reduced power output in the near-wake region, these local losses recovered globally by the enhanced vertical energy entrainment from higher altitudes. Additionally, the presence of mountains indicated an increase in the power density by up to five times compared to flat terrain. A wavelet-based autoencoder demonstrated superior performance in separating the harmonic component of time-varying mean and subgrid-scale fluctuations compared to constant and Gaussian weighting kernels. The study suggests wavelet filtering as a promising technique for subgrid-scale modeling, offering improvements not only in wind energy applications but also in other turbulence flow scenarios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The generation of ocean surface waves by wind has been studied for a century, giving rise to wave forecasting and other crucial applications. However, the reacting force of swell waves on the turbulence in the marine atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) remains unknown partly due to the unclear magnitude and profile of wave-coherent (WC) stress. In this study, the intersection frequency between the energy-containing range and inertial subrange range in the turbulent spectra is identified based on the attached eddy model (AEM), as the intersection modulated by swell wave could help to comprehend the physical process between the ocean surface wave and the marine ABL. Using observations from a fixed platform located in the South China Sea, this study shows that the intersection when the WC stress accounts for a lower proportion of the total wind stress (<10%) follows U/(2πz) given by AEM, where U is the wind speed and z is the height. While the intersection depends on the drag coefficient of WC stress for the case, WC stress accounts for a large part of the total wind stress (>10%). Considering the unclear magnitude and profile of WC stress, this study derives a new function to depict the WC stress. Significance Statement: Turbulence located in the energy-containing range of the spectra is the primary source of momentum, heat, and water vapor fluxes between the ocean and marine atmospheric boundary layer (ABL). Thus, a better understanding of the turbulent structure within the wave boundary layer can help us accurately parameterize those fluxes. In addition to absorbing energy from the marine ABL, waves, especially swell waves, influence the turbulent structure. However, until now, the turbulent structure is unclear due to the unclear wave-coherent stress size and profile. In this study, a function that can depict the wave-coherent stress is proposed. We found that the wave-coherent stress can modulate the intersection between the energy-containing range and the inertial subrange range in the turbulent spectra. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the performance of a dual-hop mixed radio frequency (RF)/underwater wireless optical communication (UWOC) system with amplifying and forwarding (AF) relaying is investigated. The diversity combining technology were combined with unifying Fisher-Snedecor ( $ \mathcal{F} $ F ), extended generalized- $ {\mathcal{K}} $ K (EGK), and $ \alpha - \mu $ α − μ distribution for atmospheric turbulence in foggy conditions to analyze the probability density function (PDF) of RF links. The UWOC link experiences mixed exponential generalized gamma (EGG) fading. By utilizing diversity combination methods and considering the statistical effects of atmospheric turbulence, random fog, and underwater turbulence, we derive the expression for the PDF of the RF/UWOC system. In addition, the tight asymptotic expression for the outage probability and average bit error rate under high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is provided. The analytical expressions are verified by Monte Carlo method, and the effects of channel number on RF/UWOC system performance under various atmospheric, underwater and weather conditions are demonstrated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Continued development of wind farms near populated areas has led to rising concerns about the potential risk posed to general aviation aircraft when flying through wind turbine wakes. There is an absence of experimental flight test data available with which to assess this potential risk. This paper presents the results of an instrumented flight experiment in which a general aviation aircraft was flown through the wake of a utilityscale wind turbine at an operating wind farm. Wake passes were flown at different downwind distances from the turbine, and data were collected on the orientation disturbances, altitude and speed deviations, and acceleration loads experienced by the aircraft. Videos and pilot statements were also collected, providing qualitative information about the disturbances encountered in the wake. Results show that flight disturbances were small in all cases, with no difference observed between flight data inside and outside the wake at distances greater than six rotor diameters from the turbine. At distances closer than six rotor diameters, small load factor and orientation disturbances were noted but were commensurate with those experienced in light or moderate atmospheric turbulence. Overall, the loads and disturbances experienced were far smaller than those that would risk causing loss of control or structural damage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To effectively mitigate the effects of atmospheric turbulence in free space optical (FSO) communication, we propose a parallel carrier frequency offset estimation (FOE) scheme based on time-tagged QPSK partitioning (TTQP). This scheme can be applied to spatial diversity polarization multiplexing (PM) coherent FSO communication systems. Specifically, the TTQP scheme performs QPSK partitioning by time-tagging signal points, accurately recording the time intervals between signals, and significantly reducing implementation complexity through a modified Mth power algorithm. The simulation results for the PM 16-quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) validate the effectiveness of the proposed scheme. Compared to traditional QPSK partitioning algorithms, the TTQP algorithm achieves high accuracy, low complexity, and multi-format versatility in high-speed coherent FSO communication. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Light intensity flicker is the most basic and important effect of turbulence. Fiber coupling efficiency is the primary parameter that ensures the system's communication quality. The light intensity flicker effect caused by atmospheric turbulence significantly affects the coupling efficiency of space light in a single-mode optical fiber. Based on the principle of fiber coupling efficiency, this paper first establishes the relationship between light intensity flicker and spatial coherence radius, then analyzes the influence of light intensity flicker on fiber coupling efficiency through the spatial coherence radius. A laser communication system was built, and real-time measurement experiments on atmospheric light intensity flicker and optical fiber coupling efficiency at different transmission distances and altitudes above the ground were completed. The experimental results show that the constructed experimental system can simultaneously measure the scintillation index and fiber coupling efficiency. When the communication distance is 12,000 m and the height is 600 m above the ground, the scintillation index is measured to be 0.63, and the coupling efficiency is 0.05. The results of the study provide an experimental and theoretical basis and data support to promote the development of atmospheric laser communications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Free-space optical (FSO) communication has received widespread attention as a high-bandwidth, low-latency communication technique. However, the scintillation effect caused by atmospheric turbulence leads to intensity fluctuations of the transmission signal, which, in turn, affects the performance of the FSO communication system. This paper proposes a channel correlation-based adaptive power transmission for FSO communications. Based on the correlation between uplink and downlink turbulence channels, the power of the reverse transmission signal is adjusted by the fluctuation strength of the received uplink or downlink transmission signal and the channel correlation coefficient to improve the system's performance. The proposed technique is investigated through a simulation using established uplink and downlink channels with different link distances and turbulence intensities. The simulation results show that the bit error rate (BER) performance of the proposed technique is significantly improved compared to the fixed threshold decision (FTD) technique, and it is close to the adaptive threshold decision (ATD) technique. The proposed technique provides an effective optimization scheme for FSO communications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In free-space optical communication (FSOC) systems, atmospheric turbulence can bring about power fluctuations in receiver ends, restricting channel capacity. Relay techniques can divide a long FSOC link into several short links to mitigate the fading events caused by atmospheric turbulence. This paper proposes a Reinforcement Learning-based Relay Selection (RLRS) method based on Deep Q-Network (DQN) in a FSOC system with multiple transceivers, whose aim is to enhance the average channel capacity of the system. Malaga turbulence is studied in this paper. The presence of handover loss is also considered. The relay nodes serve in decode-and-forward (DF). Simulation results demonstrate that the RLRS algorithm outperforms the conventional greedy algorithm, which implies that the RLRS algorithm may be utilized in practical FSOC systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study, which is divided into two parts, is twofold: to address long-standing challenges in the sensing of atmospheric turbulence-induced wavefront aberrations under strong scintillation conditions via a comparative analysis of several basic scintillation-resistant wavefront sensing (SR-WFS) architectures and iterative phase retrieval (IPR) techniques (Part I, this paper), and to develop a framework for the potential integration of SR-WFS techniques into practical closed-loop non-astronomical atmospheric adaptive optics (AO) systems (Part II). In this paper, we consider basic SR-WFS mathematical models and phase retrieval algorithms, tradeoffs in sensor design and phase retrieval technique implementation, and methodologies for WFS parameter optimization and performance assessment. The analysis is based on wave-optics numerical simulations imitating realistic turbulence-induced phase aberrations and intensity scintillations, as well as optical field propagation inside the SR-WFSs. Several potential issues important for the practical implementation of SR-WFS and IPR techniques, such as the requirements for phase retrieval computational grid resolution, tolerance with respect to optical element misalignments, and the impact of camera noise and input light non-monochromaticity, are also considered. The results demonstrate that major wavefront sensing requirements desirable for AO operation under strong intensity scintillations can potentially be achieved by transitioning to novel SR-WFS architectures, based on iterative phase retrieval techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Free space optical (FSO) communication, which has the potential to meet the demand for high-data-rate communications between satellites and ground stations, requires accurate alignment between the transmitter and receiver to establish a line-of-sight channel link. In this paper, we propose a machine learning (ML)-based approach to reduce beam pointing errors in FSO satellite-to-ground communications subjected to satellite vibration and weak atmospheric turbulence. ML models are utilized to find the optimal gain, which plays a crucial role in reducing pointing error displacement in a closed-loop FSO system. In designing the FSO environment, we employ several system model parameters, including control and system matrix components of the transmitter and receiver, noise parameters for the optical channel, irradiance, and the scintillation index of the signal. To predict the gain matrix of the closed-loop system, ML methods, such as tree-based algorithms, and a 1D convolutional neural network (Conv1D) are applied. Experimental results show that the Conv1D model outperforms other ML methods in gain value prediction, helping to maintain the beam position centered on the receiver aperture, minimizing beam pointing errors. When constructing a closed-loop system based on the Conv1D model, the error variance of the pointing error displacement was obtained as 0.012 and 0.015 in clear weather and light fog conditions, respectively. In addition, this research analyzes the impact of input features in a closed-loop FSO system, and compares the pointing error performance of the closed-loop setup to the conventional open-loop setup under weak turbulence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent and tremendous rise in the number of mobile users demands a parallel increase in the capacity of wireless networks required to achieve higher data rates, lower latency transmissions, and improved service quality. The latter is influenced highly by frequent interruption of wireless service for users at the edge of the cell due to the longer distance from the base station. To overcome this problem and in the meantime improve the capacity of the bottleneck backhaul in dense heterogeneous networks like 5G/6G systems especially in the cell edge regions, a hybrid solution that combines Radio Frequency (RF), Free Space Optics (FSO), and Optical Fiber (OF) links for backhaul transmission is proposed in this paper. In addition, a Backhaul Selection Algorithm (BSA) is suggested to choose the optimum link according to the outage probability analyses. This algorithm not only selects the link with the highest quality but also minimizing power consumption, thereby guaranteeing a consistently high-quality connection without interruptions of services. Using theoretical analyses and thorough simulations, the performance of the hybrid RF/FSOOF system is evaluated and also compared to the existing state-of-the-art techniques showing the advantages of exploiting the inherited synergies of the proposal along with the selection algorithm. The numerical results reveal that the proposed system brings a considerable reduction in power consumption compared to FSO- and RF-only systems reflecting its superiority under different atmospheric channel conditions. For instance, at SNR threshold of 10 dB, the proposed system required SNR of 20, 25 and 33 dB, respectively, for weak, moderate, and strong atmospheric turbulence conditions in order to reach the outage probability of 10-6. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, the performance of Optical Wireless Communication (OWC) under atmospheric turbulence and pointing errors is enhanced by employing MIMO transceivers and heterodyne BPSK and DPSK modulations. We have derived new closed-form expressions for the bit error rate (BER) of MIMO optical wireless communications based on BPSK and DPSK with heterodyne detection for atmospheric turbulence only, pointing error only, and both effects combined. Numerical simulations reveal that the effect of turbulence and pointing errors increases with Rayleigh variance and normalized jitter variance, while it diminishes with normalized pulse width. The BER values for SISO-BPSK and SISO-DPSK, considering a normalized pulse width of 4, normalized jitter of 2, Rayleigh variance of 2, and SNR of 16 dB, are 7.50 × 10 - 3 and 1.48 × 10 - 2 , respectively. It is evident that the BER of SISO OWC experiences significant degradation for both modulation techniques. However, through the employment of a MIMO transceiver with an increased number of receivers and transmitters, the BER experiences a substantial reduction. The BER values for MIMO-BPSK and MIMO-DPSK under the same conditions are remarkably low, standing at 1.24 × 10 - 12 and 2.38 × 10 - 10 , respectively. These results underscore that, for both SISO and MIMO systems, BPSK outperforms DPSK. The power penalty of SISO-BPSK, for Rayleigh variance and normalized pulse width, is twice that of MIMO-BPSK under the same conditions. The results show that we can use MIMO with heterodyne BPSK to reduce the BER caused by atmospheric turbulence and pointing errors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We simulate the Madden‐Julian oscillation (MJO) over an aquaplanet with uniform surface temperature using the multiscale modeling framework (MMF) configuration of the Energy Exascale Earth System Model (E3SM‐MMF). The model produces MJO‐like features that have a similar spatial structure and propagation behavior to the observed MJO. To explore the processes involved in the propagation and maintenance of these MJO‐like features, we perform a vertically resolved moist static energy (MSE) analysis for the MJO (Yao et al., 2022, https://doi.org/10.1175/jas‐d‐20‐0254.1). Unlike the column‐integrated MSE analysis, our method emphasizes the local production of MSE variance and quantifies how individual physical processes amplify and propagate the MJO's characteristic vertical structure. We find that radiation, convection, and boundary layer (BL) processes all contribute to maintaining the MJO, balanced by the large‐scale MSE transport. Furthermore, large‐scale dynamics, convection, and BL processes all contribute to the propagation of the MJO, while radiation slows the propagation. Additionally, we perform mechanism‐denial experiments to examine the role of radiation and associated feedbacks in simulating the MJO. We find that the MJO can still self‐emerge and maintain its characteristic structures without radiative feedbacks. This study highlights the role of convective MSE transport in the MJO dynamics, which was overlooked in the column‐integrated MSE analysis. Plain Language Summary: We conduct simulations of the Madden‐Julian oscillation (MJO) using a computer model that can explicitly simulate deep convective clouds. The simulated MJO behaves similarly to what has been observed in the real world in terms of its spatial structure and propagation. We then delve into the detailed mechanisms behind the MJO, using a method that analyzes how energy and moisture move vertically through the atmosphere, rather than just averaging these properties across the whole atmosphere. This novel analysis shows that radiation, convection, turbulence in the atmospheric boundary layer, and large‐scale atmospheric flows all play roles in sustaining the MJO and affect its eastward propagation. Interestingly, the MJO can still develop and maintain its unique features without the influence of radiation, indicating other processes are also key. This research underscores the importance of understanding the vertical transport of energy and moisture by convective storms in studying the MJO, an aspect previously underappreciated in some simpler models and diagnoses. Key Points: We have successfully simulated the Madden‐Julian Oscillation (MJO) using the Energy Exascale Earth System Model‐multiscale modeling framework over an aquaplanet with uniform surface temperatureVertically resolved analyses of moist static energy highlight the role of convection in the maintenance and propagation of the MJOMechanism‐denial experiments show that radiative feedbacks are not essential to simulate the MJO [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent research, there has been a significant focus on establishing robust quantum cryptography using the continuous-variable quantum key distribution (CV-QKD) protocol based on Gaussian modulation of coherent states (GMCS). Unlike more stable fiber channels, one challenge faced in free-space quantum channels is the complex transmittance characterized by varying atmospheric turbulence. This complexity poses difficulties in achieving high transmission rates and long-distance communication. In this article, we thoroughly evaluate the performance of the CV-QKD/GMCS system under the effect of individual attacks, considering homodyne detection with both direct and reverse reconciliation techniques. To address the issue of limited detector efficiency, we incorporate the phase-sensitive amplifier (PSA) as a compensating measure. The results show that the CV-QKD/GMCS system with PSA achieves a longer secure distance and a higher key rate compared to the system without PSA, considering both direct and reverse reconciliation algorithms. With an amplifier gain of 10, the reverse reconciliation algorithm achieves a secure distance of 5 km with a secret key rate of 10 − 1 bits/pulse. On the other hand, direct reconciliation reaches a secure distance of 2.82 km. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atmospheric turbulence is a key factor contributing to data distortion in mid-to-long-range target observation tasks. Neural networks have become a powerful tool for dealing with such problems due to their strong ability to fit nonlinearities in the spatial domain. However, the degradation in data is not confined solely to the spatial domain but is also present in the frequency domain. In recent years, the academic community has come to recognize the significance of frequency domain information within neural networks. There remains a gap in research on how to combine dual-domain information to reconstruct high-quality images in the field of blind turbulence image restoration. Drawing upon the close association between spatial and frequency domain degradation information, we introduce a novel neural network architecture, termed Dual-Domain Removal Turbulence Network (DDRTNet), designed to improve the quality of reconstructed images. DDRTNet incorporates multiscale spatial and frequency domain attention mechanisms, combined with a dual-domain collaborative learning strategy, effectively integrating global and local information to achieve efficient restoration of atmospheric turbulence-degraded images. Experimental findings demonstrate significant advantages in performance for DDRTNet compared to existing methods, validating its effectiveness in the task of blind turbulence image restoration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the era of sixth-generation (6G) communications approaches, there will be an unprecedented increase in the number of wireless internet-connected devices and a sharp rise in mobile data traffic. Faced with the scarcity of spectrum resources in traditional communication networks and challenges such as rapidly establishing communications after disasters, this study leverages unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to promote an integrated multi-hop communication system combining free-space optical (FSO) communication, terahertz (THz) technology, and intelligent reflecting surface (IRS). This innovative amalgamation capitalizes on the flexibility of UAVs, the deployability of IRS, and the complementary strengths of FSO and THz communications. We have developed a comprehensive channel model that includes the effects of atmospheric turbulence, attenuation, pointing errors, and angle-of-arrival (AOA) fluctuations. Furthermore, we have derived probability density functions (PDFs) and cumulative distribution functions (CDFs) for various switching techniques. Employing advanced methods such as Gaussian–Laguerre quadrature and the central limit theorem (CLT), we have calculated key performance indicators including the average outage probability, bit error rate (BER), and channel capacity. The numerical results demonstrate that IRS significantly enhances the performance of the UAV-based hybrid FSO/THz system. The research indicates that optimizing the number of IRS elements can substantially increase throughput and reliability while minimizing switching costs. Additionally, the multi-hop approach specifically addresses the line-of-sight (LoS) dependency limitations inherent in FSO and THz systems by utilizing UAVs as dynamic relay points. This strategy effectively bridges longer distances, overcoming physical and atmospheric obstacles, and ensures stable communication links even under adverse conditions. This study underscores that the enhanced multi-hop FSO/THz link is highly effective for emergency communications after disasters, addressing the challenge of scarce spectrum resources. By strategically deploying UAVs as relay points in a multi-hop configuration, the system achieves greater flexibility and resilience, making it highly suitable for critical communication scenarios where traditional networks might fail. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we report observations of propagating radial carpet beams (RCBs) through a turbulent atmosphere at ground level with a 120 m path length. RCBs are a class of nondiffracting, accelerating, self-healing, and self-amplifying beams, and generated in the diffraction of a plane wave from amplitude/phase radial gratings having different spoke numbers. Observations were made at different times of the day. The intensity profile of an RCB becomes complicated when the number of grating spokes used to generate the beam is large, and includes high intensity spots, called main intensity spots (MISs), which are symmetrically placed at the central area around the beam axis and whose number is equal to (twice) the number of spokes of the amplitude (phase) grating used to generate the beam. With the aid of a telescope and a CCD camera, successive frames of the intensity pattern of the RCBs having different levels of structural complexity are recorded at the end of the path. For the data recorded at different times of the day, we calculate the variance of displacements of MISs along the radial direction. We observe that displacements of the MISs increase with increasing mean temperature of the air; on the other hand, as the complexity of the beam intensity pattern increases, the displacements of the MISs decrease. In order to compare the resilience of different RCBs and a well-known structured beam against atmospheric turbulence, we investigate deformation of the intensity profiles of a Laguerre–Gaussian (LG) beam having a topological charge 20 and different RCBs at the end of the path. It is shown that under the same turbulence condition, highly complex RCBs are more resilient to the destructive effects of the atmospheric turbulence. In particular, for the RCBs generated with gratings having 30 spokes and more, the number of MISs of the received intensity patterns is changed by less than 1% even when the turbulence strength is high. But for the LG beam, its intensity ring is clearly broken in different places, which makes it impossible to follow its maximum intensity in the radial direction [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: The technique to overcome the challenge while implementing the fiber optical link is investigated using an alternative optical link called a free‐space optical (FSO) link with advanced modulation and signal processing techniques. A dual‐polarized 16‐quadrature amplitude‐modulated signal is transmitted over single and multi‐FSO channels under various atmospheric attenuation conditions. High bandwidth and data rates (up to 10 Gbps), unlicensed spectrum (above 300 GHz), and simplicity of deployment are significant benefits of the FSO system. However, the weather conditions of haze, rain, and fog cause signal attenuation when the optical carrier wave is transmitted over free space, and atmospheric turbulence is a challenge to FSO implementation, which degrades the transmission performance of optical signals for long‐distance communication. For 120 Gbps data transmission, the performance of a multi‐input and multi‐output (MIMO) FSO system is evaluated by observing the bit error rate (BER) and received signal constellation diagram. Optical signal‐to‐noise ratio (OSNR) parameters were iterated to determine the optimal value for back‐to‐back, single‐input, single‐output (SISO), and MIMO systems. Moreover, we examined the proposed system's output with recent articles, including MIMO, multiplexing, and various modulation techniques. The comparison of results shows that the suggested MIMO‐FSO model has enhanced the performance with the lower BER as less than 3.8 × 10−3 (log of BER is −2.42) forward error correction (FEC) limit for 18.7 km link range in clear air with 0.54 dB/km attenuation, 4.8, 4.5, 1.35, and 0.57 km under haze, light fog, medium, and heavy fog with 4.6, 6.9, 28.9, and 75 dB/km attenuations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ground-based astronomy is unavoidably subject to the adverse effect of atmospheric turbulence, a.k.a. the seeing, which blurs the images and limits the achievable spatial resolution. For spectroscopic observations, it leads to slit or fibre-injection losses, since not all photons distributed over the extended seeing disc can be captured. These losses might have a very substantial impact on the overall efficiency of a spectrograph and are naturally highly variable. Assessing the fibre-injection losses requires accurate information about the image quality (IQ) delivered by the telescope to the instrument over the course of the observations, which, however, is often not directly available. ESPRESSO provides acquisition and field-stabilization images attached to the science data and thus offers the opportunity for a post-processing analysis. Here, we present a novel method to infer the IQ profile and fibre-injection losses from the integrated field-stabilization images, utilizing the spill-over light that does not get injected into the fibre. We validate these measurements against the IQ observed in the acquisition images and determine that our method delivers unbiased estimates with a scatter of 0.11 arcsec for the FWHM of the profile and |$15~{{\ \rm per\ cent}}$| in terms of fibre-injection losses. This compares favourably to the estimates derived from either the differential image motion monitor or the telescope guide probe sensors and therefore represents a valuable tool to characterize the instrument efficiency and to correct raw spectra for fibre-injection losses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the average signal-to-noise ratio $ \left\langle {\textrm{SNR}} \right\rangle $ ⟨ SNR ⟩ at the shot-noise limited receiver of an optical wireless communication system (OWC) that uses collimated Gaussian beam with adaptive optics correction in non-Kolmogorov weak turbulent atmosphere. $ \left\langle {\textrm{SNR}} \right\rangle $ ⟨ SNR ⟩ and the variation in the percentage $ \left\langle {\textrm{SNR}} \right\rangle $ ⟨ SNR ⟩ are calculated and the results are presented against various adaptive optics correction modes, non-Kolmogorov power-law exponent, receiver aperture size, Gaussian beam source size, photodetector quantum efficiency, electronic bandwidth, link length, and turbulence strength. Adaptive optics correction is analyzed for tilt, defocus, astigmatism, coma and trefoil modes and their variations. The effects of adaptive optics compensation are examined that cause an increase in SNR, hence improve the performance of an OWC system using collimated Gaussian beam and operating in the non-Kolmogorov weak turbulent atmosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An in-depth understanding of typhoon wind and turbulence characteristics in the atmospheric boundary layer is of crucial importance to structural design of high-rise structures. This study utilizes observational wind records collected from the 356-m-high Shenzhen Meteorological Gradient Tower, which is currently the tallest in Asia and the world's second tallest meteorological tower during Super Typhoon Saola to investigate typhoon wind and turbulence characteristics based on the stationary and nonstationary models. The mean wind speed and direction, power law exponent, friction velocity, and wind speed profiles are analyzed using the stationary model. Moreover, a comparative analysis employing the stationary and nonstationary models is carried out to study turbulence characteristics involving turbulence intensity, gust factor, turbulence integral length scale, power spectral density (PSD), and turbulence parameter profiles, along with a comparison to those stipulated in several building or structural design codes and standards. The results indicate that the typhoon wind speed signals exhibit strong nonstationarity, especially for longitudinal wind direction. The turbulence parameters calculated within the nonstationary framework are lower than those from the stationary model. In addition, the PSDs of the three orthogonal wind components obtained from the stationary and nonstationary model display similarities at the frequency above 0.01 Hz, and von Kármán spectra perform better in fitting the observed PSDs compared to the Kaimal spectra. The findings of this research reveal notable disparities in typhoon wind and turbulence characteristics yielded from the stationary and nonstationary models, highlighting the necessity of accounting for nonstationarity under typhoon wind conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Turbulence in the atmospheric surface layer, especially in deserts and semi-arid regions, significantly affects sand movement. In unstable stratification, turbulence exhibits complex intermittency, complicating its impact on saltation. This study uses wavelet transform analysis to examine the effects of turbulence intermittency in unstable stratification on saltation. Our analysis reveals that in unstable stratification, the energy distribution of turbulence is more dispersed, the intermittent characteristics are more significant, and the intermittent burst duration of streamwise turbulence is longer, while the vertical intermittent burst duration is shorter. The fitting formulas of the energy ratio and stratification stability of the streamwise wind speed, vertical wind speed, and temperature at different frequencies are given. In addition, there is a complex nonlinear relationship between stratification stability and friction velocity on saltation. In unstable stratification, the critical wind speed required for saltation is higher than that of near-neutral, and the jumping speed and horizontal transport are weakened. Moreover, the coherence between wind speed and saltation flux increases significantly at low frequency with the increase in instability, indicating that large-scale motion plays a key role in saltation under these conditions. The more unstable the stratification is, the more obvious the phase difference fluctuation of the low frequency part is, and the more unfavorable the formation of stable saltation sand conditions. This study reveals the turbulence intermittently and its complex effects on sand particle movement in unstable stratification, which is of great significance for predicting and controlling dust storms, land desertification, and soil erosion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Free space optical communication (FSO) has become a popular research direction due to its high bandwidth, easy deployment, and inherent security. Its channel state is unstable because of atmospheric environment, especially in long‐distance ground transmission system. Interleaving combined with forward error correction coding (FEC) have been utilised to improve the stability of system. However, there is little detailed experimental results of deep interleaving combined with FEC under different atmospheric turbulence intensity over long‐distance FSO system. A deep interleaving with FEC method was designed and implemented on a 7 km long online experiment. The performance of different depth interleaving is analysed under weak and strong atmospheric turbulence state. The experiment results show that deep interleaving performs better under weak turbulence for the larger correlation factor of the channel and the outage probability of the system with deep interleaving can be greatly reduced. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of surface wave on the double-averaged (DA) current-only flow properties is examined over two different types of rough beds comprising hemispherical elements with regular and staggered arrangements. For each case, the relative roughness spacing of p/r = 4 is maintained, where p = pitch distance and r = hemisphere height. The changes in turbulence characteristics against the water depth are analysed for superimposed surface waves propagating along the current with 1 and 2 Hz frequencies. The effect of regular and staggered roughness arrangements on different turbulence characteristics is explored. Results demonstrate that the DA stream-wise velocity decreases and increases at the outer region and within the roughness region, respectively, due to wave propagation. Owing to the surface wave, the DA intensity and form-induced intensity increase above the roughness layer and decrease within the bottom boundary layer. The values of form-induced intensities are smaller (greater) than the DA turbulence intensities at each considered flow depth within the roughness (outer) layer. For the entire flow depth, the values of DA Reynolds stress decrease due to wave interactions along a steady current. Again, the turbulence is observed to be close to isotropic for the current-only flow at the outer zone, while the flow transits to an anisotropic state with wave imposition on current. Further, the computed values of the turbulence indicator and dispersion functions are used for the identification of the level of turbulence and dispersion at each flow depth for the locations upstream and downstream of a hemisphere in the hemispherical bed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Free-space optical (FSO) communication has become a focus of both study and commercial interest. FSO transfers data between sites in free space, typically the Earth's atmosphere or space, using laser-emitted light beams, in contrast to standard radio frequency (RF) wireless communication. The possibility for high data transmission speeds, the lack of licencing constraints, versatility, affordability, simplicity of deployment, and its environmentally friendly communication method which provides an alternative to crowded radio frequency-based communications are the driving forces behind this growing interest. To determine the feasibility of FSO communication in the cities of Alexandria and Aswan in Egypt, we utilized the micrometeorology model to analyze how weather conditions and atmospheric turbulence impact on FSO linkages based on real-time weather data. In both the winter and summer seasons, we evaluated the bit error rate, beam spreading, scintillation, and transmission range of FSO. Moreover, bit error rate performance was improved by the use of the multi-hop Decode and Forward relay. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mechanism of electrical interaction between subsystems in the Earth–atmosphere–ionosphere–magnetosphere system is currently the least studied and substantiated subject. Moreover, some experts doubt its existence. This study is devoted to investigating the mechanisms of generation and propagation of electric fields that vary in time under the influence of transient high-energy sources of various physical nature and atmospheric turbulence enhanced by these sources, which is an urgent problem. Four options of penetration of electric fields from the atmospheric surface layer into the ionosphere have been proposed. Electrical parameters that depend on disturbances in the electric charge density and the characteristics of atmospheric turbulence have been estimated and numerically calculated for a number of high-energy sources. It is shown that the disturbances arising in the atmospheric surface layer are capable of penetrating into the ionosphere and even into the magnetosphere. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a transmission model of power-exponential Airy vortex beams in plasma turbulence is established based on the random phase screen theory, and the information transmission characteristics of Airy vortex beams are compared under the OOK, BPSK, and DPSK modulation modes in free-space optical communication systems. Bit error rates (BERs) were calculated for different power indices (n), undulation variances (<Δn2>), transmission distances, and anisotropy parameters. In addition, the orbital angular momentum multiplexing of Airy vortex beams in the Line-of-Sight multiple input multiple output system under a plasma turbulence environment is investigated. The spectral efficiency (SE) is analyzed for different signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and radii of the emitting surface, and the effects of the variation in the system's numerical aperture and the power exponent on the SE and the effective degrees of freedom in space are analyzed. The results show that the Airy beam has better turbulence resistance than the Laguerre–Gaussian beam. The power-exponential Airy beam has better transmission performance than the conventional Airy beam. By increasing the anisotropy parameter, the BER of the system decreases. When the <Δn2> and the transmission distance increase, the BER increases. Increasing the SNR, the radius of the launching surface and the choice of power-exponential Airy beams can improve the channel capacity. These findings provide a theoretical basis for the problem of optical signal propagation in plasma turbulence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the key advantages of terahertz (THz) communication is its potential for energy efficiency, making it an attractive option for green communication systems. Coherent THz transmission technology has recently been explored in the literature. However, there exist few error performance results for such a wireless link employing coherent THz technology. In this paper, we explore a comprehensive terrestrial channel model designed for wireless line-of-sight communication using THz frequencies. The performance of coherent THz links is analyzed, and it is found to be notably affected by two significant factors, atmospheric turbulence and pointing errors. These could occur between the terahertz transmitter and receiver in terrestrial links. The exact and asymptotic solutions are derived for bit error rate and interrupt probability for binary phase-shift keying coherent THz systems, respectively, over log-normal and Gamma–Gamma turbulent channels. The asymptotic outage probability analysis is also performed. It is shown that the presented results offer a precise estimation of coherent THz transmission performance and its link budget. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The integration of terrestrial- and satellite-based quantum key distribution (QKD) experiments has markedly advanced global-scale quantum networks, showcasing the growing maturity of quantum technologies. Notably, the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) as relay nodes has emerged as a promising method to overcome the inherent limitations of fiber-based and low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellite connections. This paper introduces a protocol for measurement-device-independent QKD (MDI-QKD) using photon orbital angular momentum (OAM) encoding, with UAVs as relay platforms. Leveraging UAV mobility, the protocol establishes a secure and efficient link, mitigating threats from untrusted UAVs. Photon OAM encoding addresses reference frame alignment issues exacerbated by UAV jitter. A comprehensive analysis of atmospheric turbulence, state-dependent diffraction (SDD), weather visibility, and pointing errors on free-space OAM-state transmission systems was conducted. This analysis elucidates the relationship between the key generation rate and propagation distance for the proposed protocol. Results indicate that considering SDD significantly decreases the key rate, halving previous data results. Furthermore, the study identifies a maximum channel loss capacity of 26 dB for the UAV relay platform. This result is pivotal in setting realistic parameters for the deployment of UAV-based quantum communications and lays the foundation for practical implementation strategies in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Double-ring perfect vortex beams (DR–PVBs) have attracted increasing attention due to their unique characteristics of carrying independent information channels and exhibiting higher security and stability during propagation. In this study, we theoretically simulated and experimentally generated DR–PVBs with various topological charges. We investigated the propagation characteristics of these beams under von Karman spectrum turbulence conditions through numerical simulations based on multiple-phase screen methods. The effects of different inner and outer ring topological charges and varying turbulence intensities on the intensity distribution, beam spreading, and beam wander of DR–PVBs over different propagation distances were examined and compared with double-ring Gaussian vortex beams (DR–GVBs). The simulation results indicate that within a propagation range of 0–500 m, the effective radius of DR–PVBs with different topological charges remains essentially unchanged and stable. For propagation distances exceeding 1000 m, DR–PVBs exhibit superior beam wander characteristics compared to DR–GVBs. Additionally, two occurrences of self-focusing effects were observed during propagation, each enhancing beam stability and reducing the beam spreading and beam wander of the DR–PVBs. This study provides valuable insights for applications of DR–PVBs in optical communication, optical manipulation, and optical measurement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract In Free Space Optical (FSO) communication systems, atmospheric turbulence distorts the propagating beams, causing a random fading in the received power. This perturbation can be compensated using a multi-aperture receiver that samples the distorted wavefront on different points and adds the various signals coherently. In this work, we report on an adaptive optical receiver that compensates in real time for scintillation in FSO links. The optical front-end of the receiver is entirely integrated in a silicon photonic chip hosting a 2D Optical Antenna Array and a self-adaptive analog Programmable Optical Processor made of a mesh of tunable Mach–Zehnder interferometers. The photonic chip acts as an adaptive interface to couple turbulent FSO beams to single-mode guided optics, enabling energy and cost-effective operation, scalability to systems with a larger number of apertures, modulation-format and data-protocol transparency, and pluggability with commercial fiber optics transceivers. Experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed receiver with optical signals at a data rate of 10 Gbit/s transmitted in indoor FSO links where different turbulent conditions, even stronger than those expected in outdoor links of hundreds of meters, are reproduced.

Abstract In this study, we report observations of propagating radial carpet beams (RCBs) through a turbulent atmosphere at ground level with a 120 m path length. RCBs are a class of nondiffracting, accelerating, self-healing, and self-amplifying beams, and generated in the diffraction of a plane wave from amplitude/phase radial gratings having different spoke numbers. Observations were made at different times of the day. The intensity profile of an RCB becomes complicated when the number of grating spokes used to generate the beam is large, and includes high intensity spots, called main intensity spots (MISs), which are symmetrically placed at the central area around the beam axis and whose number is equal to (twice) the number of spokes of the amplitude (phase) grating used to generate the beam. With the aid of a telescope and a CCD camera, successive frames of the intensity pattern of the RCBs having different levels of structural complexity are recorded at the end of the path. For the data recorded at different times of the day, we calculate the variance of displacements of MISs along the radial direction. We observe that displacements of the MISs increase with increasing mean temperature of the air; on the other hand, as the complexity of the beam intensity pattern increases, the displacements of the MISs decrease. In order to compare the resilience of different RCBs and a well-known structured beam against atmospheric turbulence, we investigate deformation of the intensity profiles of a Laguerre–Gaussian (LG) beam having a topological charge 20 and different RCBs at the end of the path. It is shown that under the same turbulence condition, highly complex RCBs are more resilient to the destructive effects of the atmospheric turbulence. In particular, for the RCBs generated with gratings having 30 spokes and more, the number of MISs of the received intensity patterns is changed by less than 1% even when the turbulence strength is high. But for the LG beam, its intensity ring is clearly broken in different places, which makes it impossible to follow its maximum intensity in the radial direction

Abstract Free space optical communication (FSO) has become a popular research direction due to its high bandwidth, easy deployment, and inherent security. Its channel state is unstable because of atmospheric environment, especially in long‐distance ground transmission system. Interleaving combined with forward error correction coding (FEC) have been utilised to improve the stability of system. However, there is little detailed experimental results of deep interleaving combined with FEC under different atmospheric turbulence intensity over long‐distance FSO system. A deep interleaving with FEC method was designed and implemented on a 7 km long online experiment. The performance of different depth interleaving is analysed under weak and strong atmospheric turbulence state. The experiment results show that deep interleaving performs better under weak turbulence for the larger correlation factor of the channel and the outage probability of the system with deep interleaving can be greatly reduced.

Background. It is necessary to study the influence of the physical characteristics of the atmosphere, in particular, wind on atmospheric turbulence and, consequently, on the characteristics of the radio signal it is shown. Aim. The dependence of the time-spectral function of the radio signal energy flux on the wind speed in the troposphere in the antenna plane is found. Methods. A method of transition from the Cartesian coordinate system in the antenna plane to the polar coordinate system of wave numbers has been developed. Based on this method the relationship between the Fourier spectral function of the correlation moment and the representation of the Bessel function is found. For the Fourier spectral function of the correlation moment, the previously obtained solution of the differential equation for the fluctuations of the eikonal amplitude of electromagnetic wave in a turbulent atmosphere at the front of the electromagnetic wave at the coordinate of the receiving antenna is used. Using the inverse Fourier transform the relationship between the time-spectral function of the radio signal energy flux and the time-correlation function of this flux is found. Results. Based on the study of the time-correlation function of the radio signal energy flow its relationship with the two-point correlation moment characterizing the fluctuations of the eikonal amplitude of the radio signal is found. To analyze the effect of wind, a turbulence model was used, reflecting the inertial turbulence interval, in which the energy flow from larger turbulent vortices to smaller vortices is determined by the viscous dissipation of the smallest vortices. Conclusion. Numerical calculations have shown that such a wind in the antenna plane blows away turbulent vortices in this plane, bettering the quality of the received radio signal.