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IntroductionComplement activation split products are signatures of many immunopathological disorders. Among the laboratory findings observed in these diseases, a reduction in the level of circulating intact complement components can be mentioned, and this change has also been detected in envenomation by multiple Africanized honeybee (Apis mellifera) stings. Although envenomation by these animals elicits diverse life-threatening reactions, the capacity of bee venom (AmV) to activate the human complement system remains elusive.Methods and findingsBy coupling immunochemical and functional approaches, it was observed that AmV strongly consumes components of the alternative pathway (AP) of the complement system in normal human serum (NHS). Additionally, AmV interfered with classical (CP) and lectin pathways (LP) activities. In parallel, a high increase in Ba fragment levels was detected, suggesting that the changes in AP activity were due to its activation. Furthermore, an increase in the level of the C1s-C1INH complex and a decrease in the physiological level of MASP1-C1INH suggested that CP and LP were also activated in the presence of AmV. Strikingly, NHS exposed to increasing AmV concentrations varying from 5 to 1000 µg/mL presented a high generation of C3a, C4a and C5a anaphylatoxins, and sC5b-9 complexes assembly, thus reinforcing that AmV triggers complement activation.ConclusionThese results show that AmV is a strong complement activator. This activation presents a mixed profile, with a predominance of AP activation. This suggests that complement split products can play important roles in the envenomation by Africanized honeybee, as they could induce diverse immunopathological events observed in patients and may also dictate patient clinical prognosis.

Africanized bees have spread across the Americas since 1956 and consequently resulted in human and animal deaths attributed to massive attacks related to exposure from Argentina to the USA. In Brazil, more than 100,000 accidents were registered in the last 5 years with a total of 303 deaths. To treat such massive attacks, Brazilian researchers developed the first specific antivenom against Africanized honey bee sting exposure. This unique product, the first of its kind in the world, has been safely tested in 20 patients during a Phase 2 clinical trial. To develop the antivenom, a standardized process was undertaken to extract primary venom antigens from the Africanized bees for immunization of serum-producing horses. This process involved extracting, purifying, fractionating, characterizing, and identifying the venom (apitoxin) employing mass spectrometry to generate standardized antigen for hyperimmunization of horses using the major toxins (melittin and its isoforms and phospholipase A2). The current guide describes standardization of the entire production chain of venom antigens in compliance with good manufacturing practices (GMP) required by regulatory agencies. Emphasis is placed upon the welfare of bees and horses during this process, as well as the development of a new biopharmaceutical to ultimately save lives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The objective of this work was to quantify the content of total phenolic compounds in monofloral honey from aroeira (Astronium urundeuva) trees and to verify, through histochemical tests, if these compounds are present in the floral tissues. The apiary, with Apis mellifera bees, was installed among aroeira trees in the semiarid region of the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. From the anatomy of the flowers and of the inflorescence rachis, an ornamented epidermis, tector and glandular trichomes, idioblasts, and a developed secretory system were observed. Aroeira honey has an average phenolic content of 142.5±22.6 mg 100 g-1, a value considered very high when compared with those of other monofloral honeys from Brazil and around the world. Histochemical tests detected the presence of phenolic substances in the idioblasts and secretory ducts associated with the phloem in the floral tissues, especially in the nectar parenchyma, epidermis, and glandular trichomes. Phenolic compounds are present in the floral tissue of both floral morphs, mainly in the nectary where honeybees collect nectar. The obtained results are the first, in the literature, indicative that the phenolic compounds produced by aroeira trees are transferred through the nectar to the honey. This study contributes to the establishment of quality standards for monofloral aroeira honey and to the identification of its botanical origin.

The ectoparasite Varroa (Acari: Varroidae) is considered to be the main pest of honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) in Nicaragua. The aim of this study was to determine morphotypes and mitochondrial haplotypes of the Varroa mites, related to infestation levels in A. mellifera hives in Nicaragua in a cross-sectional study (2013–2016). Samples were taken from 34 sentinel apiaries in five geographical zones; from 713 Varroa females collected during the study, 153 were selected for measurement of various morphometric characters for further classification into morphotypes. The mitochondrial haplotype was assigned to one of the two (Korean or Japanese), using the restriction by SacI of the PCR product of a fragment of the gene CO-I. Morphometric measurement and sequencing revealed the affiliation to the species Varroa destructor with a mean (± SD) body width of 1699.1 ± 60.2 µm and a body length of 1161.1 ± 34.9 µm. Body characters were significantly different among the 34 apiaries. Varroa destructor samples were classified into four morphotypes, with no significant differences in the geographical zones. As GAGCTC SacI enzyme cleavage sequences were not observed, all PCR products were identified as V. destructor Korean haplotype. The CO-I gene nucleotide sequences from two samples V. destructor showed both 100% similarity with the Korean haplotype and 99.8% similarity to the Japanese haplotype. Although the V. destructor mite was identified as a Korean haplotype, host-parasite association in 2 decades has led into a balance without entering into severe losses in the Nicaraguan apiculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract INTRODUCTION: We evaluated the epidemiological and clinical profile of reported cases of bee sting incidents in Santa Catarina, Brazil. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study included all reported cases of bee sting incidents among the population of Santa Catarina from 2007 to 2017. RESULTS: In total, 8,912 cases were reported, corresponding to an overall rate of 12.3/100,000 population. The mean age was 29,8 years with 60.2% men. The lethality rate was 0.2%. CONCLUSIONS: Santa Catarina has a high incidence rate of bee stings, which is higher than the national average. The data presented in this study may be underestimated.

Palynological analyses were carried out on 12 honey samples, with the aim of identifying the plants foraged by honeybee populations in six provinces of Burkina Faso. A total of 46 different pollen grains were identified at the species level, and 29 botanical families were reported. In the honey samples, the Fabaceae were the most representative botanical family with more than 11 different species, corresponding to 24% of the all examined pollen grains. The other common families were, respectively: Malvaceae (11%), Rubiaceae (9%), Poaceae (7%) and Combretaceae (7%). At species and genus level, Piliostigma thonningii (Schum.) Milne-Redh. (42%), Combretum type and Acacia type (42%), were the most frequently bee-visited plants, followed by Cochlospermum planchonii Hook. f. (33%) and Mitracarpus scaber Zucc. (33%). A total of five honey samples were considered as unifloral, and were derived from the following species: Lannea microcarpa Engl., Vitellaria paradoxa C. F. Gaertn., Cassia mimosoides L. and genus Combretum Loefl. The other seven honey samples were not comprised of a predominant pollen type and may be considered multifloral. Within these last, Piliostigma thonningii, Grewia bicolor Juss. and Detarium microcarpum Guill. & Perr. were well represented. The polylectic behaviour of Apis mellifera adansonii Latreille and the heterogeneous sources of forage were confirmed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wild and managed bees are essential for crop pollination and food production. However, the widespread use of insecticides such as neonicotinoids may affect the survival, development, behavior, and maintenance of bee colonies. Therefore, in this study we evaluated the impacts of three neonicotinoid insecticides on the survival and walking abilities of the Africanized honeybee A. mellifera and stingless bee S. postica. A. mellifera was more susceptible than S. postica to all neonicotinoids tested. The median lethal concentrations LC50 values estimated for acetamiprid, imidacloprid, and thiacloprid were 189.62, 22.78, and 142.31 ng µL–1 of diet for A. mellifera, and 475.94, 89.11, and 218.21 ng µL–1 of diet for S. postica, respectively. All tested neonicotinoids affected the speed, distance traveled, duration and frequency of resting, and continuous mobility of both bee species. The results showed that in spite of the different susceptibility to compounds with cyano and nitro radicals, the behavioral variables showed different levels of commitment according to the molecule insecticide and bee species. These results contribute not only to the understanding of the effects of neonicotinoid insecticides on A. mellifera and S. postica, but also to help in the development of protocols that aim to reduce the impact of these insecticides in Neotropical environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The recent global decline in Western honeybee (Apis mellifera) populations is of great concern for pollination and honey production worldwide. Declining honeybee populations are frequently infected by the microsporidian pathogen Nosema ceranae. This species was originally described in the Asiatic honeybee (Apis cerana), and its identification in global A. mellifera hives could result from a recent host transfer. Recent genome studies have found that global populations of this parasite are polyploid and that humans may have fueled their global expansion. To better understand N. ceranae biology, we investigated its genetic diversity within part of their native range (Thailand) and among different hosts (A. mellifera, A. cerana) using both PCR and genome-based methods. We find that Thai N. ceranae populations share many SNPs with other global populations and appear to be clonal. However, in stark contrast with previous studies, we found that these populations also carry many SNPs not found elsewhere, indicating that these populations have evolved in their current geographic location for some time. Our genome analyses also indicate the potential presence of diploidy within Thai populations of N. ceranae. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract How can the title of a paper affect its subsequent number of citations? We compared the citation rate of 5941 papers published in the journal Biological Conservation from 1968 to 2012 in relation to: paper length; title length; number of authors; paper age; presence of punctuation (colons, commas or question marks); geographic and taxonomic breadth; the word 'method'; and the type of manuscript (article, review). The total number of citations increased in more recently published papers and thus we corrected citation rate (average number of citations per year since publication) by publication age. As expected, review papers had, on average, twice the number of citations compared to other types of articles. Papers with the greatest geographic or taxonomic breadth were cited up to twice as frequently as narrowly focused papers. Titles phrased as questions, shorter titles, and papers with more authors had slightly higher numbers of citations. However, overall, we found that the included parameters explained only 12% of the variability in citation rate. This suggests that finding a good title is necessary, but that other factors are more important to construct a well-cited paper. We suggest that to become highly cited, a primary requirement is that papers need to advance the science significantly and be useful to readers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Fifty six Brazilian bee pollen samples were characterised, and their botanical and geographical origins were studied. The samples were also classified based on physicochemical and biological properties. The characterisation was done using Soxhlet extraction and micro-Kjeldahl methods, ashing at 550 °C, transmittance, microscopy, spectrophotometry, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry and high-performance liquid chromatography. As expected, the values of proteins (7.9–32.2 g/100 g), lipids (3.2–13.5 g/100 g), ash (1.9–3.6 g/100 g), carbohydrates (54.9–82.8 g/100 g), K (3.4–9.8 g/kg), Ca (0.9–4.1 g/kg), Mg (0.6–2.4 g/kg), Fe (46–1180 mg/kg), Na (20–374 mg/kg), Mn (25–215 mg/kg), Zn (30–101 mg/kg), Cu (7.4–19.7 mg/kg), total phenolics (6.5–29.2 mg GAE/g) and flavonoids (0.3–17.5 mg QE/g) as well as the phenolic profiles varied among the samples. In general, the products had high antioxidant capacity (ORAC: 133–563 μmol TE/g; DPPH: 9.4–155 μmol TE/g) and the antimicrobial capacity varied according to the sample and microorganism tested. The instrumental colour parameters could be used as indicators of some minerals. Based on multivariate approaches, bee pollen from Southern Brazil seemed to have a higher biological potential, whereas products from the Northeast region had higher calcium and magnesium levels. Similarities were identified in bee pollen containing C. nucifera or Brassica , and monofloral bee pollen seemed to have higher mineral content than heterofloral bee pollen. Highlights • Brazilian bee pollen could be a good source of some minerals. • The antioxidant capacity of Brazilian bee pollen was higher than in some red fruits. • Instrumental colour parameters could be used as indicators of some minerals. • The composition of the samples varies according to the geographical origin. • There are similarities in bee pollen containing specific pollen types. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The African-derived honey bee, Apis mellifera scutellata L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae), is reported to be somewhat resistant to the parasitic mite Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman (Mesostigmata: Varroidae). However, this parasitic mite is considered a danger to honey bee colonies around the world and is reported to have negative effects in Brazil as well. Climate and altitude can affect the infestation levels of this mite. However, the impact of climate and altitude on Varroa infestation rates in Africanized honey bee is not well known; therefore, the goal of this study was to assess environmental effects on Varroa and honey bees in Brazil. We sampled 193 colonies across Bahia state during the Brazilian winter period, also collecting climatic information (rainfall and temperature) and altitude data for each apiary location. We used several statistical tests, such as Kruskal-Wallis, Pearson's correlation, and canonical discriminant analysis to evaluate the possible influence of the environmental variables on Varroa infestation levels. Varroa destructor was present in 94% of the samples, with the colonies showing infestation levels (proportion of infested bees per sample) ranging from 0 to > 20%. We found that weather and altitude in Neotropical areas have moderate degrees of influence on V. destructor infestation rates in Africanized honey bees. Colonies of Africanized honey bees located in areas with greater rainfall and lower altitude can have greater mite presence and infestation levels than in warmer, higher areas. Beekeepers in the lower, wetter areas should monitor their colonies regularly to detect the presence, and avoid increase, in mite infestation rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Backgrounds: Apis mellifera scutellata and A.m. capensis (the Cape honey bee) are western honey bee subspecies indigenous to the Republic of South Africa (RSA). Both bees are important for biological and economic reasons. First, A.m. scutellata is the invasive “African honey bee” of the Americas and exhibits a number of traits that beekeepers consider undesirable. They swarm excessively, are prone to absconding (vacating the nest entirely), usurp other honey bee colonies, and exhibit heightened defensiveness. Second, Cape honey bees are socially parasitic bees; the workers can reproduce thelytokously. Both bees are indistinguishable visually. Therefore, we employed Genotyping-by-Sequencing (GBS), wing geometry and standard morphometric approaches to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of these bees to search for diagnostic markers that can be employed to distinguish between the two subspecies. Results: Apis mellifera scutellata possessed the highest mean number of polymorphic SNPs (among 2449 informative SNPs) with minor allele frequencies > 0.05 (Np = 88%). The RSA honey bees generated a high level of expected heterozygosity (Hexp = 0.24). The mean genetic differentiation (FST; 6.5%) among the RSA honey bees revealed that approximately 93% of the genetic variation was accounted for within individuals of these subspecies. Two genetically distinct clusters (K = 2) corresponding to both subspecies were detected by Model-based Bayesian clustering and supported by Principal Coordinates Analysis (PCoA) inferences. Selected highly divergent loci (n = 83) further reinforced a distinctive clustering of two subspecies across geographical origins, accounting for approximately 83% of the total variation in the PCoA plot. The significant correlation of allele frequencies at divergent loci with environmental variables suggested that these populations are adapted to local conditions. Only 17 of 48 wing geometry and standard morphometric parameters were useful for clustering A.m. capensis, A.m. scutellata, and hybrid individuals. Conclusions: We produced a minimal set of 83 SNP loci and 17 wing geometry and standard morphometric parameters useful for identifying the two RSA honey bee subspecies by genotype and phenotype. We found that genes involved in neurology/behavior and development/growth are the most prominent heritable traits evolved in the functional evolution of honey bee populations in RSA. These findings provide a starting point for understanding the functional basis of morphological differentiations and ecological adaptations of the two honey bee subspecies in RSA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Honeybee defensive behaviour is an important trait for selection of honeybees for breeding programs. We evaluated the variation in honeybee defensive behaviour with environmental factors and hive conditions. Factors such as the difference in the agro-ecological zones, colony strength, mean elevation, type of bee hive used, and the vegetation cover were considered. The number of honeybees attacking the researchers’ protective gear within one minute of disturbance was recorded per colony and analyzed. Apis m. adansonii was found to be the most defensive. Variations in the agro-ecological zones, colony strength, and mean elevation were found to significantly influence the defensive behaviour of the honeybees. Honeybee colonies in the Mid North AEZ were the most defensive. The type of bee hive and vegetation cover did not have any influence on the defensive behaviour. From this study, we suggest that selection of honeybees that are less defensive for breeding programs should consider A. m. scutellata and honeybee colonies from West Nile and Southern Highland AEZs at higher elevations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: BACKGROUND: The global decline in Apis mellifera colonies is attributed to multiple factors, including pesticides. The bioinsecticide spinosad was initially recognized as safe for non‐target organisms; however, its toxicity has been changing this view. Here, we investigated the survival, behavioral changes, and structural changes in the midgut and Malpighian tubules of A. mellifera treated orally with a spinosad formulation. RESULTS: The field‐recommended concentration of spinosad killed 100% of the bees. The 5% and 50% lethal concentrations (LC5 and LC50, respectively) of spinosad altered the behavioral activity, reducing the walking distance and velocity, and increased the resting time in comparison to the control. The LC50 caused disorganization of the epithelia of tested organs and induced oxidative stress and cell death. CONCLUSIONS: The present work provides new insights into the debate about the role of bioinsecticides in the mortality of Africanized honey bees. Even at very low concentrations, the spinosad formulation was toxic to the vital organs midgut and Malpighian tubules and adversely affected walking behavior. This detailed evaluation of the impact of the bioinsecticide on A. mellifera will contribute to the clarification of disturbances probably caused by spinosad formulations, which can be used to develop more sustainable protocols in agriculture. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pollen, the main protein source for honey bees, is mixed with regurgitated nectar or honey during collection and then stored as ‘bee bread’ before its consumption, mainly by young nurse workers. It has been suggested that storage of pollen improves its nutritional value and digestibility, but there is little evidence for such changes. We fed two fresh pollen types of different protein content (aloe and sunflower), and two stored pollen types (sunflower and a mixed pollen), to young caged worker bees. We measured daily consumption of pollen and sucrose solution, and survival after 14 days. At day 14 we recorded ovarian activation and extraction efficiency, by counting empty pollen grains in the rectal contents. Extraction efficiency is a measure of pollen digestibility. Contrary to our predictions, bees did not consume more fresh sunflower pollen than fresh aloe pollen to compensate for the lower protein content of sunflower pollen. In addition, they did not consume less sucrose solution when fed stored pollen diets that are already enriched in sugar. Consumption of stored sunflower pollen resulted in a low protein to carbohydrate (P:C) intake. Survival and ovarian activation were higher on diets giving higher P:C intakes. Extraction efficiency was high (up to 99%) for all pollen diets, and comparison of fresh and stored sunflower pollen showed that storage did not make it easier to digest. Changes to pollen during storage do not confer obvious benefits to honey bees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera) arrived in the western hemisphere in the 1950s and quickly spread north reaching California in the 1990s. These bees are highly defensive and somewhat more difficult to manage for commercial purposes than the European honey bees traditionally kept. The arrival of these bees and their potentially replacing European bees over much of the state is thus of great concern. After a 25 year period of little systematic sampling, a recent small scale study found Africanized honey bees in the Bay Area of California, far north of their last recorded distribution. The purpose of the present study was to expand this study by conducting more intensive sampling of bees from across northern California. We found Africanized honey bees as far north as Napa and Sacramento. We also found Africanized bees in all counties south of these counties. Africanized honey bees were particularly abundant in parts of the central valley and Monterey. This work suggests the northern spread of Africanized honey bees may not have stopped. They may still be moving north at a slow rate, although due to the long gaps in sampling it is currently impossible to tell for certain. Future work should routinely monitor the distribution of these bees to distinguish between these two possibilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examine whether a panel of 37 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) has the same power as a more expensive panel of 95 SNPs to assign ancestry of honeybees ( Apis mellifera) to three ancestral lineages. We selected SNPs using allele frequencies, such that poorly performing SNPs were excluded. We find that ancestry assignment is comparable between the two panels. Importation of bee semen from countries where Africanized bees are present into countries where Africanized bees are absent would be facilitated if small proportions of semen derived from Africanized drones can be reliably detected. We used the abbreviated panel to determine if semen from a single Africanized drone could be detected when mixed with the semen of 10, 20 or 40 non-Africanized drones. We found that the use of the 37 SNP test on a mixed sample would fail to detect the contribution of a single Africanized male. It is therefore important that the cadavers of the males contributing semen are individually tested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highly aggressive Africanized honeybees (AHB) invaded Puerto Rico (PR) in 1994, displacing gentle European honeybees (EHB) in many locations. Gentle AHB (gAHB), unknown anywhere else in the world, subsequently evolved on the island within a few generations. Here we sequence whole genomes from gAHB and EHB populations, as well as a North American AHB population, a likely source of the founder AHB on PR. We show that gAHB retains high levels of genetic diversity after evolution of gentle behaviour, despite selection on standing variation. We observe multiple genomic loci with significant signatures of selection. Rapid evolution during colonization of novel habitats can generate major changes to characteristics such as morphological or colouration traits, usually controlled by one or more major genetic loci. Here we describe a soft selective sweep, acting at multiple loci across the genome, that occurred during, and may have mediated, the rapid evolution of a behavioural trait. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Genetic exchange by hybridization or admixture can make an important contribution to evolution, and introgression of favourable alleles can facilitate adaptation to new environments. A small number of honeybees ( Apis mellifera) with African ancestry were introduced to Brazil ~60 years ago, which dispersed and hybridized with existing managed populations of European origin, quickly spreading across much of the Americas in an example of a massive biological invasion. Here, we analyse whole-genome sequences of 32 Africanized honeybees sampled from throughout Brazil to study the effect of this process on genome diversity. By comparison with ancestral populations from Europe and Africa, we infer that these samples have 84% African ancestry, with the remainder from western European populations. However, this proportion varies across the genome and we identify signals of positive selection in regions with high European ancestry proportions. These observations are largely driven by one large gene-rich 1.4-Mbp segment on chromosome 11 where European haplotypes are present at a significantly elevated frequency and likely confer an adaptive advantage in the Africanized honeybee population. This region has previously been implicated in reproductive traits and foraging behaviour in worker bees. Finally, by analysing the distribution of ancestry tract lengths in the context of the known time of the admixture event, we are able to infer an average generation time of 2.0 years. Our analysis highlights the processes by which populations of mixed genetic ancestry form and adapt to new environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Varroa destructor is an ectoparasitic pest of honeybees, and a threat to the survival of the apiculture industry. Several studies have shown that unlike European honeybees, African honeybee populations appear to be minimally affected when attacked by this mite. However, little is known about the underlying drivers contributing to survival of African honeybee populations against the mite. We hypothesized that resistant behavioral defenses are responsible for the survival of African honeybees against the ectoparasite. We tested this hypothesis by comparing grooming and hygienic behaviors in the African savannah honeybee Apis mellifera scutellata in Kenya and A. mellifera hybrids of European origin in Florida, USA against the mite. Grooming behavior was assessed by determining adult mite infestation levels, daily mite fall per colony and percentage mite damage (as an indicator of adult grooming rate), while hygienic behavior was assessed by determining the brood removal rate after freeze killing a section of the brood. Our results identified two additional undescribed damaged mite categories along with the six previously known damage categories associated with the grooming behavior of both honeybee subspecies. Adult mite infestation level was approximately three-fold higher in A. mellifera hybrids of European origin than in A. m. scutellata, however, brood removal rate, adult grooming rate and daily natural mite fall were similar in both honeybee subspecies. Unlike A. mellifera hybrids of European origin, adult grooming rate and brood removal rate did not correlate with mite infestation levels on adult worker honeybee of A. m. scutellata though they were more aggressive towards the mites than their European counterparts. Our results provide valuable insights into the tolerance mechanisms that contribute to the survival of A. m. scutellata against the mite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nosema ceranae is a pathogen of Apis mellifera, which seems to have jumped from its original host Asiatic honey bee Apis ceranae. Nosemosis which affects the honey bee Apis mellifera is caused by two parasitic fungi described as etiologic agents of the disease. Nosema apis was the only microsporidian infection identified in A. mellifera until N. ceranae in Taiwan and Europe. Nosema spp. positive samples of adult worker bees from the Venezuelean state of Lara were determined through light microscopy of spores. Samples were then tested to determine Nosema species (N.apis/N.ceranae) using previously reported PCR primers for the 16S rRNA gene. A multiplex PCR assay was used to differentiate both N. apis and N. ceranae species. Only N. ceranae was found in the analyzed samples and the percentage of infected foragers fluctuated between 18% and 60%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bees are recognized worldwide for their social, economic, and environmental value. In recent decades they have been seriously threatened by diseases and high levels of pesticide use. The susceptibility of bees to insecticides makes them an important terrestrial model for assessing environmental quality, and various biomarkers have been developed for such assessments. The present study aimed to evaluate the activity of the enzymes acetylcholinesterase (AChE), carboxylesterase (CaE), and glutathione- S-transferase (GST) in Africanized honeybees exposed to fipronil. The results showed that fipronil at a sublethal dose (0.01 ng/bee) modulates the activity of CaE in all isoforms analyzed (CaE-1, CaE-2, and CaE-3) in both newly emerged and aged bees, and does not affect the activity of AChE or GST. The recovery of the bees after fipronil exposure was also investigated, and these results demonstrated that even the cessation of fipronil ingestion might not lead to complete recovery of individual bees. Even at low doses, fipronil was shown to cause changes in the activity of key enzymes in bees. The possible consequences of these changes are discussed. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:1652-1660. © 2016 SETAC [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of pheromones on insect physiology and behavior has been thoroughly reported for numerous aspects, such as attraction, gland development, aggregation, mate and kin recognition. Brood pheromone (BP) is released by honey bee larvae to indicate their protein requirements to the colony. Although BP is known to modulate pollen and protein consumption, which in turn can affect physiological and morphological parameters, such as hypopharyngeal gland (HPG) development and ovarian activation, few studies have focused on the effect of BP on nutritional balance. In this study, we exposed newly emerged worker bees for 14 d and found that BP exposure increased protein intake during the first few days, with a peak in consumption at day four following exposure. BP exposure decreased survival of caged honey bees, but did not affect either the size of the HPG acini or ovarian activation stage. The uncoupling of the BP releaser effect, facilitated by working under controlled conditions, and the presence of larvae as stimulating cues are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urban landscapes provide habitat for many species, including domesticated and feral honey bees, Apis mellifera L. ( Hymenoptera: Apidae). With recent losses of managed honey bee colonies, there is increasing interest in feral honey bee colonies and their potential contribution to pollination services in agricultural, natural, and urban settings. However, in some regions the feral honey bee population consists primarily of Africanized honey bees. Africanized honey bees ( AHB) are hybrids between European honey bees and the African honey bee, Apis mellifera scutellata Lepeletier, and have generated economic, ecological, and human health concerns because of their aggressive behavior. In this study, we used two long-term datasets (7-10 years) detailing the spatial and temporal distribution of AHB colonies in Tucson, AZ, USA, where feral colonies occupy a variety of cavities including water meter boxes. A stage-structured matrix model was used to elucidate the implications of nest site selection and the effects of colony terminations on the structure and dynamics of the AHB population. Our results suggest that Tucson's AHB population is driven by a relatively small number of 'source' colonies that escape termination (ca. 0.165 colonies per km2 or 125 colonies in total), although immigrating swarms and absconding colonies from the surrounding area may have also contributed to the stability of the Tucson AHB population. Furthermore, the structure of the population has likely been impacted by the number and spatial distribution of water meter boxes across the city. The study provides an example of how urban wildlife populations are driven by interactions among landscape structure, human management, and behavioral traits conferred by an invasive genotype. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the American continent, honeybee envenomation is a public health problem due to the high incidence and severity of the cases. Despite its medical importance, there is a lack of epidemiological studies on this topic in Brazil, especially referring to the Northeastern states. The present study has aimed to describe the epidemiological features of honeybee envenomation cases in the state of the Ceará, Northeastern Brazil, from 2007 to 2013. Data were collected from the Injury Notification Information System database of the Health Department of Ceará. A total of 1,307 cases were analyzed. Cases were shown to be distributed in all the months of the studied years, reaching higher frequencies in August. The majority of cases occurred in urban areas and involved men aged between 20 and 29 years. Victims were mainly stung on the head and torso, and they received medical assistance predominantly within 3 hours after being stung. Local manifestations were more frequent than systemic ones. Most cases were classified as mild and progressed to cure. The high number of honeybee sting cases shows that Ceará may be an important risk area for such injuries. Moreover, the current study provides data for the development of strategies to promote control and prevention of bee stings in this area.

The Africanized honeybee (AHB; Apis mellifera scutellata ) is an invasive species which poses a threat to the United States' agricultural industry because of potential decline in pollination services. Previous research has confirmed that the AHB may still expand its range farther north and that limiting environmental factors for AHB distribution vary across the country. This study examines similarities and differences in AHB distribution and the relative importance of environmental factors between two regions of the southwestern United States: southern Utah and southern California. The Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) modeling approach was used to create two species distribution models of the AHB. First a model was created based on AHB presence data in Utah. This model was used to estimate the Utah distribution and also to project the California distribution based on Utah environmental preferences. The second model was created to predict distribution in California and to project distribution in Utah based on AHB environmental preferences in California. The level of influence of each variable was measured through percent contribution and permutation importance. Model performance was assessed through the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC). Models estimated AHB presence with high accuracy (AUC > 0.95) in original environments, but were less accurate (AUC < 0.8) in novel environments. Minimum temperature was the primary controlling factor of AHB distribution in each model, and other variables followed similar ranking of importance between the two models. Species response curves varied substantially between the two models. Models did not transfer well from one region to the other because of local differences in response curves and the relative importance of environmental variables, suggesting that AHB in these regions may not have realized their potential geographic range. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Thiamethoxam is a widely used neonicotinoid pesticide that, as agonist of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, has been shown to elicit a variety of sublethal effects in honey bees. However, information concerning neonicotinoid effects on honey bee thermoregulation is lacking. Thermoregulation is an essential ability for the honey bee that guarantees the success of foraging and many in-hive tasks, especially brood rearing. We tested the effects of acute exposure to thiamethoxam (0.2, 1, 2 ng/bee) on the thorax temperatures of foragers exposed to low (22 °C) and high (33 °C) temperature environments. Thiamethoxam significantly altered honey bee thorax temperature at all doses tested; the effects elicited varied depending on the environmental temperature and pesticide dose to which individuals were exposed. When bees were exposed to the high temperature environment, the high dose of thiamethoxam increased their thorax temperature 1–2 h after exposure. When bees were exposed to the low temperature, the higher doses of the neonicotinoid reduced bee thorax temperatures 60–90 min after treatment. In both experiments, the neonicotinoid decreased the temperature of bees the day following the exposure. After a cold shock (5 min at 4 °C), the two higher doses elicited a decrease of the thorax temperature, while the lower dose caused an increase, compared to the control. These alterations in thermoregulation caused by thiamethoxam may affect bee foraging activity and a variety of in-hive tasks, likely leading to negative consequences at the colony level. Our results shed light on sublethal effect of pesticides which our bees have to deal with. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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In Gabon, like elsewhere in Africa, crops are often sources of conflict between humans and wildlife. Wildlife damage to crops can drastically reduce income, amplifying poverty and creating a negative perception of wild animal conservation among rural people. In this context, crop-raiding animals like elephants quickly become “problem animals”. To deter elephants from raiding crops beehives have been successfully employed in East Africa; however, this method has not yet been tested in Central Africa. We experimentally examined whether the presence of Apis mellifera adansonii, the African honey bee species present in Central Africa, deters forest elephants (Loxodonta Africana cyclotis) from feeding on fruit trees. We show for the first time that the effectiveness of beehives as deterrents of elephants is related to bee activity. Empty hives and those housing colonies of low bee activity do not deter elephants all the time; but beehives with high bee activity do. Although elephant disturbance of hives does not impede honey production, there is a tradeoff between deterrence and the quantity of honey produced. To best achieve the dual goals of deterring elephants and producing honey colonies must maintain an optimum activity level of 40 to 60 bee movements per minute. Thus, beehives colonized by Apis mellifera adansonii bees can be effective elephant deterrents, but people must actively manage hives to maintain bee colonies at the optimum activity level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman ( Varroa) is a damaging pest of the Western honey bee, Apis mellifera, in North America, Europe, and Asia. However, Varroa infestations have not produced equivalent colony losses of African subspecies of honey bee throughout Africa and parts of the Americas. We surveyed the Varroa infestation rates (number of Varroa per 100 adult honey bees) in colonies of A. m. scutellata, A. m. capensis, and hybrids of the two subspecies throughout the Republic of South Africa in the fall of 2014. We found that A. m. scutellata colonies had significantly higher Varroa infestations than did A. m. capensis colonies. Furthermore, hybridized colonies of the two subspecies had Varroa infestations intermediate to those of A. m. scutellata and A. m. capensis. This is the first documentation of a clear difference in Varroa infestation rates of A. m. scutellata, A. m. capensis, and hybridized colonies in South Africa. Furthermore, our data confirm that Varroa populations in A. m. scutellata colonies are within the range of populations that are damaging to European honey bees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Africanized Apis mellifera bees, also known as killer bees, have an exceptional defensive instinct, characterized by mass attacks that may cause envenomation or death. From the years 2000–2013, 77,066 bee accidents occurred in Brazil. Bee venom comprises several substances, including melittin and phospholipase A 2 (PLA 2 ). Due to the lack of antivenom for bee envenomation, this study aimed to produce human monoclonal antibody fragments (single chain fragment variable; scFv), by using phage display technology. These fragments targeted melittin and PLA 2 , the two major components of bee venom, to minimize their toxic effects in cases of mass envenomation. Two phage antibody selections were performed using purified melittin. As the commercial melittin is contaminated with PLA 2 , phages specific to PLA 2 were also obtained during one of the selections. Specific clones for melittin and PLA 2 were selected for the production of soluble scFvs, named here Afribumabs: prefix: afrib- (from Africanized bee); stem/suffix: -umab (fully human antibody). Afribumabs 1 and 2 were tested in in vitro and in vivo assays to assess their ability to inhibit the toxic actions of purified melittin, PLA 2 , and crude bee venom. Afribumabs reduced hemolysis caused by purified melittin and PLA 2 and by crude venom in vitro and reduced edema formation in the paws of mice and prolonged the survival of venom-injected animals in vivo . These results demonstrate that Afribumabs may contribute to the production of the first non-heterologous antivenom treatment against bee envenomation. Such a treatment may overcome some of the difficulties associated with conventional immunotherapy techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the American continent, honeybee envenomation is a public health problem due to the high incidence and severity of the cases. Despite its medical importance, there is a lack of epidemiological studies on this topic in Brazil, especially referring to the Northeastern states. The present study has aimed to describe the epidemiological features of honeybee envenomation cases in the state of the Ceará, Northeastern Brazil, from 2007 to 2013. Data were collected from the Injury Notification Information System database of the Health Department of Ceará. A total of 1,307 cases were analyzed. Cases were shown to be distributed in all the months of the studied years, reaching higher frequencies in August. The majority of cases occurred in urban areas and involved men aged between 20 and 29 years. Victims were mainly stung on the head and torso, and they received medical assistance predominantly within 3 hours after being stung. Local manifestations were more frequent than systemic ones. Most cases were classified as mild and progressed to cure. The high number of honeybee sting cases shows that Ceará may be an important risk area for such injuries. Moreover, the current study provides data for the development of strategies to promote control and prevention of bee stings in this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research was carried out to evaluate the pollination by Africanized honeybees Apis mellifera, the floral biology and to observe the hoarding behavior in the soybean flowers (Glycine max Merril), var. BRS-133. The treatments were constituted of demarcated areas for free visitation of insects, covered areas by cages with a honeybee colony (A. mellifera) and also covered areas by cage without insects visitation. All areas had 24 m² (4m x 6m). The soybean flowers stayed open for a larger time (82.82 ± 3.48 hours) in covered area without honeybees. The stigma of the flowers was also more receptive (P=0.0021) in covered area without honeybees (87.3 ± 33.0%) and at 10:42 o'clock was the schedule of greater receptivity. The pollen stayed viable in all treatments, the average was 99.60 ± 0.02%, which did not present differences among treatments. The percentage of abortion of the flowers was 82.91% in covered area without honeybees, this result was superior (P=0.0002) to the 52.66% and 53.95% of the treatments uncovered and covered with honeybees, respectively. Honeybees were responsible for 87.7% of the pollination accomplished by the insects. The medium amounts of total sugar and glucose measured in the nectar of the flowers were, 14.33 ± 0.96 mg/flower and 3.61 ± 0.36 mg/ flower, respectively, not showing differences (PEste experimento teve como objetivos avaliar a polinização realizada por abelhas Apis mellifera, estudar a biologia floral e observar o comportamento de coleta nas flores de soja (Glycine max L. Merril), variedade BRS-133 plantadas na região de Maringá-PR. Os tratamentos constituíram de áreas demarcadas de livre visitação por insetos, áreas cobertas por gaiolas, com uma colônia de abelhas (A. mellifera) no seu interior e plantas também cobertas por gaiola que impedia a visitação por insetos. Todas as áreas possuíam 24 m² (4 m x 6 m). As flores de soja permaneceram abertas por um tempo maior (82,82 ± 3,48 horas) no tratamento coberto sem abelhas. O estigma das flores também se mostrou mais receptivo (P=0,0021) no tratamento coberto sem abelhas (87,3 ± 33%) e, às 10h42min, foi o horário de maior receptividade. O pólen se manteve viável em todos tratamentos, a média foi de 99,60 ± 0,02%, não apresentado diferenças entre tratamentos. O teste de fidelidade demonstrou que as abelhas A. mellifera foram 100% fiéis às flores de soja. A porcentagem de aborto das flores foi de 82,91% no tratamento sem abelhas e este resultado foi superior (P=0,0002) aos 52,66% e 53,95% dos tratamentos livre e coberto com abelhas, respectivamente. As quantidades médias de açúcar total e de glicose medidas no néctar das flores foram, respectivamente, de 14,33 ± 0,96 µg/flor e de 3,61 ± 0,36 µg/flor, não apresentando diferenças (P>0,05) entre os tratamentos. Os sólidos totais, medidos através do refratômetro manual foram de 21,33 ± 0,22% no tratamento livre e de 22,33 ± 0,38% no tratamento coberto com abelhas e estes resultados diferiram entre si (P=0,0001). A quantidade de néctar nas flores foram similares entre os tratamentos, sendo que o volume médio de néctar/flor foi 0,072 ± 0,04 µL/flor. As abelhas A. mellifera foram os insetos mais freqüentes (95,18%). Outros insetos observados foram os lepidópteros (3,51%) e outras abelhas (1,32%), no tratamento livre. Neste tratamento, o tempo de coleta para néctar foi de 2,55 ± 0,07 segundos que foi menor (P=0,0039) que o tempo de 2,87 ± 0,08 segundos, observado no tratamento coberto com abelhas. O comportamento para o tipo de coleta observado nas abelhas A. mellifera mostrou que as coletoras de néctar não apresentaram um padrão, mas para pólen, o horário de pico das coletoras foi às 11h36min. As flores de soja se mostraram sensíveis aos tratamentos, revelando alterações na sua biologia quando foram expostas ou não às abelhas.

A study of the most important polliniferous plants for European and Africanized honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) was made in Quintana Roo state. Comparisons were made between the plants visited by both bee types in order to determine whether there were qualitative or quantitative differences in their choice of plant species. Also some foraging strategies of the honeybees were analysed. Pollen from pollen load samples was acetolysed and mounted on slides. Subsequently the polien grains were identified, counted and photographed. A total of 206 pollen load samples were collected at Palmas and St. Teresa during two years. The most frequent species in the ponen load samples from European and Africanized honeyhees were Cecropia peltata, Metopium brownei, Lonchocarpus sp. 2, Viguiera dentata, Eragrostis sp. 1, Bursera simaruba and Eupatorium albicaule. Both types of honey bees show a high reliance on pollen from only a few species, the first five named above comprised around 50% of all the mean percentage frequencies. Families that contributed with the largest number of polien species were Fabaceae, Asteraceac, Boraginaceae, Convolvulaecae, Euphorbiaceae, Sapindaceae, Poaceac, Myrtaceae, Sapotaceae and Tiliaceae. C. peltata, Trema micrantha, B. simaruba, Eugenia sp. 1, Thouinia canesceras, Pouteria sp. 1, Mimosa bahamensis and V. dentata, were the pollen species with the largest percentages of oceurrence in both European and Africanized bee pollen load samples, and also represent a "long-term" food resources during the year.Un estudio de las plantas poliníferas más importantes para las abejas europeas y africanizadas (Apis melifera L.) se realizó en el estado de Quintana Roo. Se hicieron comparaciones entre plantas visitadas por ambos tipos de abejas, con el objetivo de determinar si hay diferencias cualitativas o cuantitativas en la elección de la especie de planta. Adicionalmente, se analizaron algunas estrategias de forrajeo de las abejas. Muestras de cargas de pólen se acetolizaron y se montaron en láminas. Posteriormente, los granos de pólen se identificaron, se contaron y se fotografiaron. Se recolectaron un total de 206 muestras de cargas de pólen en Las Palmas y Sta. Teresa durante dos años. Las especies más frecuentes en las muestras de cargas de pólen fueron Cecropia peltata, Metopium brownei, Lonchocarpus sp. 2, Viguiera dentata, 1, Eragrostis sp. 1, Bursera simaruba y Eupatorium albicaule. Ambos tipos de abejas mostraron una alta dependencia hacia sólo unas pocas especies de plantas, las primetas cinco de las mencionadas anteriormente constituyen aproximadamente un 50% de todas las frecuencias de porcentaje promedio. Las familias que contribuyeron con un mayor número de especies de pólen fueron Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Boraginaceae, Convolvulaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Sapindaceae, Poaceae, Myrtaceae, Sapotaceae y Tiliaceae. En tanto que C. peltata, Trema micrantha, B. simaruba, Eugenia sp. 1, Thouinia canesceras, Pouteria sp. 1, Mimosa bahamensis y V. dentata, fueron las especies de pólen con los más altos porcentajes de presencia en las cargas de pólen de las abejas y representan además, una fuente de recursos alimenticios de larga duración durante todo el año.

Background : The present study aims to investigate the clinical-epidemiological characteristics of bee sting cases recorded between 2007 and 2012 in the city of Campina Grande, Paraiba state, Brazil. Data were collected from the database of the Injury Notification Information System of the Brazilian Ministry of Health.Results : A total of 459 bee sting cases were retrospectively analyzed. The average annual incidence was 19 cases per 100,000 inhabitants. Cases were distributed in all months of the year, with higher prevalence in September and February. Most victims were men aged between 20 and 29 years. The highest incidence of cases was recorded in urban areas. Victims were stung mainly on the head and torso and received medical assistance predominantly 1 to 3 hours after being stung. The most frequent clinical manifestations were pain, edema and itching. Most cases were classified as mild, and three deaths were reported.Conclusions : The high incidence of envenomations provoked by bees in Campina Grande suggests that it may be an important risk area for accidents. Since several medical records lacked information, clinical-epidemiological profile of bee sting cases in the studied region could not be accurately determined. The current study provides relevant data for the development of strategies to promote control and prevention of bee stings in this area. Further training for health professionals seems to be necessary to improve their skills in recording clinical-epidemiological information as well as in treating bee sting victims.

The honeybee, Apis mellifera, is the world's most important pollinator and is ubiquitous in most agricultural ecosystems. Four major evolutionary lineages and at least 24 subspecies are recognized. Commercial populations are mainly derived from subspecies originating in Europe (75-95%). The Africanized honeybee is a New World hybrid of A. m. scutellata from Africa and European subspecies, with the African component making up 50-90% of the genome. Africanized honeybees are considered undesirable for bee-keeping in most countries, due to their extreme defensiveness and poor honey production. The international trade in honeybees is restricted, due in part to bans on the importation of queens (and semen) from countries where Africanized honeybees are extant. Some desirable strains from the United States of America that have been bred for traits such as resistance to the mite Varroa destructor are unfortunately excluded from export to countries such as Australia due to the presence of Africanized honeybees in the USA. This study shows that a panel of 95 single nucleotide polymorphisms, chosen to differentiate between the African, Eastern European and Western European lineages, can detect Africanized honeybees with a high degree of confidence via ancestry assignment. Our panel therefore offers a valuable tool to mitigate the risks of spreading Africanized honeybees across the globe and may enable the resumption of queen and bee semen imports from the Americas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Africanized honey bees entered California in 1994 but few accounts of their northward expansion or their frequency relative to European honey bees have been published. We used mitochondrial markers and morphometric analyses to determine the prevalence of Africanized honeybees in San Diego County and their current northward progress in California west of the Sierra Nevada crest. The northernmost African mitotypes detected were approximately 40 km south of Sacramento in California’s central valley. In San Diego County, 65% of foraging honey bee workers carry African mitochondria and the estimated percentage of Africanized workers using morphological measurements is similar (61%). There was no correlation between mitotype and morphology in San Diego County suggesting Africanized bees result from bidirectional hybridization. Seventy percent of feral hives, but only 13% of managed hives, sampled in San Diego County carried the African mitotype indicating that a large fraction of foraging workers in both urban and rural San Diego County are feral. We also found a single nucleotide polymorphism at the DNA barcode locus COI that distinguishes European and African mitotypes. The utility of this marker was confirmed using 401 georeferenced honey bee sequences from the worldwide Barcode of Life Database. Future censuses can determine whether the current range of the Africanized form is stable, patterns of introgression at nuclear loci, and the environmental factors that may limit the northern range of the Africanized honey bee. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Secretions from the mandibular glands of honeybees have been studied extensively, with those of queens dominated by ώ-9 fatty acids and ώ-10 fatty acids dominating those of non-laying workers. Apis mellifera adansonii (Latreille) is one of the widely distributed subspecies of African honeybees. However, its mandibular gland pheromones have not been analysed previously. Using gas chromatography, we analysed the composition of mandibular gland pheromones in workers and queens of A. mellifera adansonii from Nigeria. Qualitatively, workers and queens have similar pheromone profiles to those previously reported in other African subspecies of honeybees. We found 9-ODA and high amounts of its precursor 9-hydroxy-2 ( E)-decenoic acid (9-HDA) in workers, thus showing that they produce queen-like signals under queen-right conditions. We also found geographic variation in the pheromone profiles and morphometric characters of these workers, suggesting different pheromone and morphoclusters from the different ecological and climatological regions inhabited by A. m. adansonii in Nigeria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to substitute wheat flour by passion fruit peel flour in Brazilian honey bread (pão de mel), with evaluation of the breads’ sensory features, chemical composition and physical properties. Design/methodology/approach – Honey breads with wheat flour (standard) and with replacement of this ingredient by 10 to 50 per cent passion fruit peel flour were produced. Two sensory tests were applied, to identify how different formulations with passion fruit peel flour were when compared to the standard formulation, and also the acceptability of the products. The selected honey breads, through sensory results, were evaluated regarding to chemical composition and physical properties. Findings – Formulations with 10 and 20 per cent substitution were the least different to formulations with only wheat flour, and were as acceptable as the wheat flour sample. Physical and chemical characteristics of breads with 10 and 20 per cent passion fruit peel flour were similar; however, honey bread with 20 per cent passion fruit peel flour had higher fibre content, ash quantity and hardness value; a lower specific volume; and a different colour from the wheat flour sample. Practical implications – This study offers an opportunity to food industries through utilization of an agro-industrial by-product on the formulation of a Brazilian traditional product. Originality/value – This study presents the feasibility of using an agro-industrial by-product to Brazilian honey bread, enhancing the nutritive value of this product and reducing the impact of passion fruit peel flour on the environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: With the development of inexpensive, high-throughput sequencing technologies, it has become feasible to examine questions related to population genetics and molecular evolution of non-model species in their ecological contexts on a genome-wide scale. Here, we employed a newly developed suite of integrated, web-based programs to examine population dynamics and signatures of selection across the genome using several well-established tests, including FST, pN/pS, and McDonald-Kreitman. We applied these techniques to study populations of honey bees (Apis mellifera) in East Africa. In Kenya, there are several described A. mellifera subspecies, which are thought to be localized to distinct ecological regions. Results: We performed whole genome sequencing of 11 worker honey bees from apiaries distributed throughout Kenya and identified 3.6 million putative single-nucleotide polymorphisms. The dense coverage allowed us to apply several computational procedures to study population structure and the evolutionary relationships among the populations, and to detect signs of adaptive evolution across the genome. While there is considerable gene flow among the sampled populations, there are clear distinctions between populations from the northern desert region and those from the temperate, savannah region. We identified several genes showing population genetic patterns consistent with positive selection within African bee populations, and between these populations and European A. mellifera or Asian Apis florea. Conclusions: These results lay the groundwork for future studies of adaptive ecological evolution in honey bees, and demonstrate the use of new, freely available web-based tools and workflows (http://usegalaxy.org/r/kenyanbee) that can be applied to any model system with genomic information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of natural diet (brood, pollen, honey, and their various combinations), mating duration (1 day versus 2 days), female (F) to male (M) ratio (1F/1M, 2F/1M, and 1F/2M), and temperature (34 versus 27-29 °C) on ovary activation, mating success, and fecundity of small hive beetles (SHBs) were studied. Our results indicated that regardless of mating duration, (1) a diet of brood, pollen, and honey presented together supported the highest fecundity; (2) intake of protein-rich diets encouraged ovary activation and egg-laying; and (3) diet of honey alone did not encourage ovary activation, mating success, and egg-laying at room temperature. Regardless of the number of males available for mating, egg-laying varied through time. Overall, females that were presented with two males for a 5-day mating period had higher fecundity than females provided with one male or three male partners. High temperature accelerated ovary activation and egg-laying regardless of female to male ratio during a 15-h mating period. Knowledge of these factors that influence fecundity helps elucidate why SHBs are very successful pests of honey bees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]