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Williams, H.F.L., 2024. Testing digital elevation model of difference (DoD) estimation of washover fan thickness, Matagorda Peninsula, Texas. Journal of Coastal Research, 40(5), 852–859. Charlotte (North Carolina), ISSN 0749-0208. Washover fans are a fundamental component of coastal sediment budgets. While fans can be relatively easily delineated on air photos to obtain fan area, measurement of fan thickness, which is required for volume estimation, is problematic. Field surveys can be conducted, but fieldwork can be labor-intensive, costly, and time-consuming and have access problems. This study used pre- and poststorm LIDAR digital elevation models (DEMs) to create a digital elevation model of difference (DoD), which was then used to estimate the mean thicknesses of 10 Hurricane Harvey washover fans on Matagorda Peninsula, Texas. The accuracy of the LIDAR-derived fan thicknesses was assessed by comparing the LIDAR results to fan mean thicknesses based on pits excavated into fans. Seven out of 10 LIDAR-based thicknesses underestimated pit-based thicknesses, suggesting the presence of systematic bias in the LIDAR-derived DEMs. Underestimation of fan thicknesses was in the range of 36% to 56%. The source of the suspected bias is uncertain; it is possible that compaction of marsh sediments by the washover fans lowered the fans and reduced their apparent thicknesses. It is concluded that pre- and post-storm LIDAR DEMs can be used to estimate washover fan thickness, but in areas of compactible substrates, such as coastal marshes, steps should be taken to identify, evaluate, and address potential bias in the DEM data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using landscape archaeology methods, field survey, remote sensing, and the analysis of historical aerial photographs, a distinct landscape has been documented in the town of Obrovac, Zadar County, Croatia. This landscape consists of material remains of various military structures from World War II, constituting the defence and occupation system of the town of Obrovac by the armed Italian. These material remains of military structures represent a highly significant material presence in the landscape. The research results presented in this study represent the types of fortifications used by the Italian army during World War II. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing availability of unoccupied aircraft systems (UAS, also referred to as drones) has led to their use in taking vertical aerial photographs at relatively small spatial scales. These photographs can be used to measure the distances between objects appearing in the photographs. However, relief displacement can cause an object above or below ground level to appear at a point in a vertical aerial photograph that is not directly in-line with the object's actual location, causing a measurement error. A UAS was used in this study as a photographed airborne object because its location and altitude could be controlled. We were interested in predicting the horizontal distance of the UAS's appearance from the centre of a vertical aerial photograph. Predictions of the location of the photographed UAS's appearance in vertical aerial photographs over both level and sloped surfaces matched measured appearance distances within 0.06–0.48 m. This study shows that the relief displacement formulas typically used to compute the height of a vertical structure appearing in a vertical aerial photograph can additionally be used to compute the actual location of an airborne object (e.g., a flying UAS, bird, bat) if the object's altitude is known or can be estimated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid development of rural settlements into commuter towns in the hinterland of large cities, coupled with intensive agriculture and climate change, may negatively affect the prosperity of these areas. The presented analysis focused on randomly selected rapidly growing settlements in the Prague metropolitan area, examining their development with a focus on the peripheral parts of such settlements. Settlement margins constitute a specific part of rural settlements as it typically contributes to the rural character by providing the gradual gradient between the settlement and the open landscape. The representation of water-absorbing and non-water-absorbing areas and their suitability for the development of taller vegetation along the margins of three randomly selected suburbanised settlements in the hinterland of Prague are analysed from the perspective of the possibility to maintain the traditional character of the settlement margins. Historical maps, aerial photographs, spatial planning documents, and data on current land use and landscape cover were used for the analysis of the settlements' development over the last approx. 200 years. In order to determine whether an area is water absorbing or not, a manual approach was used for historical maps and a machine learning process for present orthophoto maps. The automated machine learning classification process could be utilised, because the used orthophoto imagery includes a near-infrared portion of the spectrum (i.e. NIR imagery). We have observed the trend of decreasing plot size and of reduction in the water-absorbing surfaces suitable for planting taller vegetation, especially in the twenty-first century residential developments, which disrupts the traditional rural character of these settlements. The utilisation and stabilisation of the current vegetation in the historical areas, together with the creation of the vegetation belts along the margins of the newly developed areas, could improve the environmental quality of these settlements, promote ecosystem services, and increase biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite their extensive global presence and the importance of variations in their speed as an essential climate variable, only about a dozen global time series document long-term changes in the velocity of rock glaciers – large tongue-shaped flows of frozen mountain debris. By analysing historical aerial photographs, we reconstruct here 16 new time series, a type of data that has not previously existed for the North American continent. We observe substantial accelerations, as much as 2–3 fold, in the surface displacement rates of rock glaciers across the mountains of the western contiguous United States over the past six to seven decades, most consistent with strongly increasing air temperatures in that region. Variations between individual time series suggest that different local and internal conditions of the frozen debris bodies modulate this overall climate response. Our observations indicate fundamental long-term environmental changes associated with frozen ground in the study region. The study reconstructs 16 new time series for rock glacier flow in North America, marking the first for the continent. Analysis shows 2-3 fold accelerations in surface velocities over the past 60-70 years, linked to rising air temperatures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cryospheric hazards - in this case, thaw slumps (TS) and thermo-erosion gullies (TEG) - are phenomena typical of permafrost-dominated landscapes. Open datasets informing about their spatial, temporal and size distributions in the Arctic are still uncommon, as opposed to the systematic availability of this information for geomorphic processes in mid- to low- latitudes. To date, only the most populated region of Svalbard was covered with TS and TEG inventories. Here, we extend the respective information to most of the Archipelago, totalling 8491 polygons, out of which 3679 are TSs and 4812 are TEGs. These have been manually mapped from aerial photographs throughout Svalbard across the 14 largest ice-free regions. The SvalCryo inventory is highly relevant as the Arctic environment undergoes alarming changes in response to global warming. The idea behind the two inventories is to support the geoscientific community in the quest to evaluate the environmental response to climate change, by creating a baseline for change monitoring, and ultimately to serve as basis for susceptibility, hazard and risk assessment models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ocean plastic pollution is one of the global environmental problems of our time. "Rubbish islands" formed in the ocean are increasing every year, damaging the marine ecosystem. In order to effectively address this type of pollution, it is necessary to accurately and quickly identify the sources of plastic entering the ocean, identify where it is accumulating, and track the dynamics of waste movement. To this end, remote sensing methods using satellite imagery and aerial photographs from unmanned aerial vehicles are a reliable source of data. Modern machine learning technologies make it possible to automate the detection of floating plastics. This review presents the main projects and research aimed at solving the "plastic" problem. The main data acquisition techniques and the most effective deep learning algorithms are described, various limitations of working with space images are analyzed, and ways to eliminate such shortcomings are proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to map and analyze the spatial pattern of the surface deformation associated with the 2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake (Mw7.5) using structure-from-motion/multi-view-stereo (SfM–MVS), an advanced photogrammetric technique. The analysis was conducted using digital aerial photographs with a ground pixel dimension of 0.2 m (captured the day after the earthquake). Horizontal locations of GCPs were determined using pre-earthquake data to remove the wide-area horizontal crustal deformation component. The elevations of the GCPs were corrected by incorporating quasi-vertical values derived from a 2.5-dimensional analysis of synthetic aperture radar (SAR) results. In the synclinorium structure area, where no active fault had previously been identified, we observed a 5 km long uplift zone (0.1 to 0.2 km in width), along with multiple scarps that reached a maximum height of 2.2 m. The area and shape of the surface deformation suggested that the induced uplift and surrounding landslides were related to fold structures and their growth. Thus, our study shows the efficacy of SfM–MVS with respect to accurately mapping earthquake-induced deformations, providing crucial data for understanding seismic activity and informing disaster-response strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The folded Zagros is a part of the active Zagros belt in the southwest of Iran. This area has main faults and active rock formations, the activity of these faults has somehow affected the strata and sediments of different geological periods. In this study First, by studying satellite images and aerial photographs, five locations were selected in different parts of Fars and the hinterland of Bandar Abbas, and finally, the tectonostratigraphy of these locations was compared with each other. The sinology column and the paleogeographical map of these regions in the Miocene period were reconstructed Using the data obtained from five places of folded Zagros (Bastak, Bahar anticline, Arjan plain, Saadi mountain and Yasouj). The obtained results and the resulting diagrams were obtained using the RockWorks geological program. the minimum and maximum stratified thicknesses of the Miocene period formation in these five studied points are related to Arjan Plain and Saadi mountain sections By comparing the obtained results and the Hesar diagrams and the isopach map. It was done between the studied locations, which shows the highest thickness of this formation in the Arjan plain section and the lowest thickness is in Saadi Mountain. The facies changes of sedimentary rocks of the Miocene period seem to be due to the operation and activity of bedrock faults such as Kare Bes, Sabzpushan, Sarvestan and Kazeron faults in this region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Technology implementation, particularly the use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) and photogrammetry, is being employed in road works for regional and road planning. The current study deploys aerial photographs and data processing along with software, like Agisoft Metashape, PCI Geomatica, Global Mapper, and Autocad Civil 3D as an efficient and effective way to generate digital maps and perform geometric road reviews. The accuracy test of CE90 performed for horizontal accuracy was 0.003 m and the LE90 carried out for vertical accuracy was 0.006 m. This accuracy level is valuable for road planning, ensuring that the data utilized for decision-making are reliable and precise. The study focused on Wori Street spanning from Pandu to Kima Atas Street Manado, covering the section from Sta. 0+000 to Sta. 5+225, which is a collector road with a designated speed of 50 km/h. Among the 16 bends analyzed, 11 met highways’ standards for the collector road class, certifying compliance with safety guidelines. Furthermore, the existing road slope conforms to standard requirements, remaining below 8%. This adherence to safety criteria is vital for the design and operation of safe roads. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Photo air oxidation combines the use of ultraviolet (UV) light and air as an oxidant to degrade diethylene glycol (DEG) in wastewater. DEG is well known for its high chemical oxygen demand and has raised some serious environmental issues, since the conventional biological treatment package in plants may not be able to treat the waste in an effective manner. UV light generates highly reactive species, such as hydroxyl radicals (•OH), which can react with DEG and break it down into smaller, less harmful compounds. Air, specifically oxygen (O2), can act as an additional oxidant in the process, assisting in the degradation of DEG. The UV light source, such as low-pressure mercury lamps that emit at around 254 nm, is still needed to initiate the generation of hydroxyl radicals. The presence of oxygen in wastewater allows the hydroxyl radicals to react with DEG more effectively, improving the oxidation process. In the present research work, the effect of airflow rate, UV light intensities, oxygen partial pressure, and initial DEG concentration on photo-oxidation of DEG in wastewater was examined. We have also performed a kinetic study, from which the reaction order and the rate constant were determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the 21st century, climate change and its consequences are getting more serious. The changes in temperature and precipitation alter the run-off conditions, subsequently influencing the channel processes of rivers. The study aims to analyse the hydrological changes in a small, sub-alpine river (Rába/Raab River, Central Europe) and the bank erosional processes (1951–2024). The bank erosion was determined based on topographical maps, aerial photographs, and field (RTK–GPS) surveys. Short (2–3 days) floods were common between 1950 and 1980, and low stages occurred in 65–81% of a year. However, extreme regimes developed in the 21st century, as record-high, flash floods altered with long low stages (91–96% of a year). The bank erosion shows a cyclic temporal pattern, gradually increasing until it reaches a high value (4.1–4.9 m/y), followed by a limited erosional rate (2.2–2.8 m/y). However, the magnitude of the bank erosion is decreasing. This could be explained by (1) the lower transport capacity of the more common low stages and (2) the seasonal shift of the flood waves, which appear in the growing season when the riparian vegetation can more effectively protect the banks from erosion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The currently used standardised precipitation index (SPI) does not allow for a reliable assessment of the impact of drought due to the small and unevenly distributed network of meteorological stations. Hopes for developing methods to assess the impact of droughts are pinned on remote data acquisition and the use of analysis of aerial photographs and satellite scenes. The aim of this study is to assess the occurrence of drought based on the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) and SPI at multiple time scales (1-, 3-, and 6-, 9- and 12-month). NDVI values do not simply reflect meteorological drought. However, the spatial co-occurrence of meteorological drought with drought defined on the basis of the NDVI index was demonstrated. The study presents a new approach to identifying drought characterized by SPI and NDVI based on the bivariate choropleth map method, which can indicate the actual places of drought occurrence. The study was carried out for the upper Noteć catchment located in Central Poland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The NW-SE-trending dextral strike-slip faults on the north side of the Tian Shan, e.g., the Karatau fault, Talas–Fergana fault, Dzhalair–Naiman fault, Aktas fault, Dzhungarian fault, and Chingiz fault, play an important role in accommodating crustal shortening. The classic viewpoint is that these strike-slip faults are an adjustment product caused by the difference in the crustal shortening from west to east. Another viewpoint attributes the dextral strike-slip fault to large-scale sinistral shearing. The Alakol Lake fault is a typical dextral strike-slip fault in the north Tian Shan that has not been reported. It is situated along the northern margin of the Dzhungarian gate, stretching for roughly 150 km from Lake Ebinur to Lake Alakol. Our team utilized aerial photographs, satellite stereoimagery, and field observations to map the spatial distribution of the Alakol Lake fault. Our findings provided evidence supporting the assertion that the fault is a dextral strike-slip fault. In reference to its spatial distribution, the Lake Alakol is situated in a pull-apart basin that lies between two major dextral strike-slip fault faults: the Chingiz and Dzhungarian faults. The Alakol Lake fault serves as a connecting structure for these two faults, resulting in the formation of a mega NW-SE dextral strike-slip fault zone. According to our analysis of the dating samples taken from the alluvial fan, as well as our measurement of the displacement of the riser and gully, it appears that the Alakol Lake fault has a dextral strike-slip rate of 0.8–1.2 mm/a (closer to 1.2 mm/a). The strike-slip rate of the Alakol Lake fault is comparatively higher than that of the Chingiz fault in the northern region (~0.7 mm/a) but slower than that of the Dzhungarian fault in the southern region (3.2–5 mm/a). The Chingiz–Alakol–Dzhungarian fault zone shows a gradual decrease in deformation towards the interior of the Kazakhstan platform. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ruins of stone‐walled towns, villages, and homesteads mark the residential nodes of Bokoni, a polity that thrived in northeastern South Africa from the late 15th to the early 19th century and extended over about 30 000 km2. These residential structures are generally observable on aerial photographs and satellite imagery, but with a few exceptions, the terraced gardens and fields are less visible. Lidar data from one of Bokoni's towns—Khutwaneng—has made finding the fields easier. In this 17th to early 19th‐century town, all homesteads have adjacent terraced gardens or fields, irrespective of whether they are well‐established or newly built. Lidar imagery of terraces that were being built in newly established homesteads supports the view that most terraces grew over time and were the result of quotidian actions by farmers. The pervasiveness of terraces throughout the town suggests that urban farming was an entrenched component of Bokoni's urban life. In southern Africa, daily farming duties were historically performed by women, and it is likely that this was also the case in Bokoni. Understanding the terraces as the product of women's quotidian labor allows for reflection on the role that women and their actions as farmers played in shaping the Khutwaneng farmscape, and it in shaping them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores a little-known archive of historical aerial photographs curated by the General Directorate of Mapping of the Republic of Türkiye's Ministry of Defense and discusses the historical context of their production by US Navy aerial photography squadrons in the 1950s. While the images themselves enable a technical analysis of the method of their collection, contemporary military manuals, domain-specific magazines and newsletters, and eyewitness accounts of how similar photographs were captured fill out the contexts of their production for cartographic purposes, with information about the aircraft involved, their cameras and camera configurations, and mission characteristics. Continuing sections situate the aerial surveys within the framework of US-led initiatives in mapping NATO territories following World War II. As one example of what must have been many special mapping agreements made between NATO countries at this time, the US cartographic surveys over Türkiye discussed here are an expression of postwar realignments of global power, put to the purposes of containment-based security preparations and infrastructure development, and neatly intertwining American military and commercial interests early in the Cold War. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Melt ponds are a core component of the summer sea ice system in the Arctic, increasing the uptake of solar energy and impacting the ice-associated ecosystem. They were thus one of the key topics during the 1-year drift campaign Multidisciplinary drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate (MOSAiC) in the Transpolar Drift 2019/2020. Pond depth is a dominating factor in describing the surface meltwater volume; it is necessary to estimate budgets and used in model parameterization to simulate pond coverage evolution. However, observational data on pond depth are spatially and temporally strongly limited to a few in situ measurements. Pond bathymetry, which is pond depth spatially fully resolved, remains unexplored. Here, we present a newly developed method to derive pond bathymetry from aerial images. We determine it from a photogrammetric multi-view reconstruction of the summer ice surface topography. Based on images recorded on dedicated grid flights and facilitated assumptions, we were able to obtain pond depth with a mean deviation of 3.5 cm compared to manual in situ observations. The method is independent of pond color and sky conditions, which is an advantage over recently developed radiometric airborne retrieval methods. It can furthermore be implemented in any typical photogrammetry workflow. We present the retrieval algorithm, including requirements for the data recording and survey planning, and a correction method for refraction at the air–pond interface. In addition, we show how the retrieved surface topography model synergizes with the initial image data to retrieve the water level of individual ponds from the visually determined pond margins. We use the method to give a profound overview of the pond coverage on the MOSAiC floe, on which we found unexpected steady pond coverage and volume. We were able to derive individual pond properties of more than 1600 ponds on the floe, including their size, bathymetry, volume, surface elevation above sea level, and temporal evolution. We present a scaling factor for single in situ depth measurements, discuss the representativeness of in situ pond measurements and the importance of such high-resolution data for new satellite retrievals, and show indications for non-rigid pond bottoms. The study points out the great potential to derive geometric properties of the summer sea ice surface emerging from the increasingly available visual image data recorded from uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) or aircraft, allowing for an integrated understanding and improved formulation of the thermodynamic and hydrological pond system in models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article recounts the experiences of Pedro Hernan Halke Arevalos and his involvement in the establishment of the Tierra Prometida campesino settlement in Nueva Germania. The landless farmers formed a committee called El Resto to secure land for those who were left out when a piece of land was given to others before the year 2000. They faced obstacles such as lack of recognition from the government and conflicts with the landowner and a Brazilian buyer. Despite these challenges, they persisted in their fight for the land. The article also mentions the murder of the narrator's brother and the difficulties encountered in constructing the houses. The government provided support in the form of houses, infrastructure, and food provisions, but the campesinos had to begin repaying the loan after ten years. The text includes photographs that document the lives and activities of the campesinos. [Extracted from the article]

The evolution of map development has been shaped by advancing techniques and technologies. Nevertheless, field and remote mapping with cabinet data analysis remains essential in this process. Geological maps are thematic maps that delineate diverse geological features. These maps undergo updates reflecting changes in the mapped area, technological advancements, and the availability of new data. Herein, a geological assessment example focused on enhancing mapped data using digitally processed historical (legacy) aerial images is presented for a case study in the Dinarides karst area in Croatia. The study area of Bribirske Mostine is covered by the Basic Geological Map of Yugoslavia (BGMY) at a 100,000 scale, which was developed during the 1960s. As the BGMY was developed 60+ years ago, one of its segments is further analyzed and discussed, namely, faults. Moreover, applying modern-day technologies and reinterpretation, its data, scale, presentation, and possible areas of improvement are presented. Georeferenced digital historical geological data (legacy), comprising BGMY, archive field maps, and aerial images from 1959 used in BGMY development, are reviewed. Original faults were digitalized and reinterpreted within the geographic information system with the following conclusions: (i) more accurate data (spatial positioning) on faults can be gained by digitally processing aerial photographs taken 60+ years ago with detailed review and analysis; (ii) simultaneously, new data were acquired (additional fault lines were interpreted); (iii) the map scale can be up-scaled to 1:25,000 for the investigated area of Bribirske Mostine; and (iv) a newly developed map for the Bribirske Mostine study area is presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poland as well as other countries keep extensive collections of 20th and 21st-century aerial photos, which are underexploited compared to such other archival materials as satellite imagery. Meanwhile, they offer significant research potential in various areas, including urban development, land use changes, and long-term environmental monitoring. Archival photographs are detailed, often obtained every five to ten years, and feature high resolution, from 20 cm to 1 m. Their overlap can facilitate creating precise digital models that illustrate topography and land cover, which are essential variables in many scientific contexts. However, rapidly transforming these photographs into geographically accurate measurements of the Earth's surface poses challenges. This article explores the obstacles in automating the processing of historical photographs and presents the main scientific research directions associated with these images. Recent advancements in enhancing work˚ows, including the development of modern digital photogrammetry tools, algorithms, and machine learning techniques are also discussed. These developments are crucial for unlocking the full potential of aerial photographs, making them easier accessible and valuable for a broader range of scientific fields. These underutilized photographs are increasingly recognized as vital in various research domains due to technological advancements. Integrating new methods with these historical images offers unprecedented opportunities for scientific discovery and historical understanding, bridging the past with the future through innovative research techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Results of spatial and temporal comparison of malaria hotspots and coldspots could improve the health measures of malaria control and eradication strategies. The study aimed to reveal the spatially and temporally independent correlations between the potentially most effective background variables and the number of autochthonous malaria cases. Methods Relationships between malaria cases and background variables were studied in 2 km × 2 km sized quadrates (10 Central European and 10 African). In addition to the current habitat structure of the African sites, annual precipitation, and annual mean temperature, data of the above parameters detected in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and currently in the Central European sites were included in the analyses (n = 40). Mann–Whitney tests, Principal Component Analysis, and Generalized Linear Models were used for the examinations. Results In addition to the apparent significant positive correlation of malaria cases with annual rainfall and mean temperature, several correlations were found for habitat parameters. The cover of marshlands in the 19th-century habitat structure of Central European quadrates was considerably the same as in the recent African ones. The extent of rural residential areas was significantly smaller in the 19th-century habitat structure of Central European quadrats than in present-day African ones. According to the revealed correlations, the surface cover of rural residential areas is the main driver of the number of autochthonous malaria cases that we can directly impact. Conclusions The study confirmed with historical comparison that not only the annual rainfall and mean temperature, the cover of marshlands and other habitats with breeding sites, but also the elements of the rural human environment play a significant role in the high number of autochthonous malaria cases, probably through the concentration and enhancing sites for vector mosquitoes. The latter confirms that a rapid urbanization process could reduce malaria cases in the most infected areas of Africa. Until the latter happens, extensive biological control of Anopheles larvae and chemical control (both outdoor and indoor) of their imagoes, further mosquito nets, repellents, and carbon dioxide traps will need to be applied more widely in the most heavily infested areas.

Channel incision is an evident trend for river evolution in many European rivers and notably the Western Carpathians, whose former braided and multichannel wandering river system is transforming into a single‐thread channel, but it is often difficult to separate drivers and determine if incision is finished or is still ongoing. To overpass these research gaps, this paper presents an innovative approach to assess the multidecadal incision of the Belá River in the Western Carpathians since 1949 by LiDAR‐based analyses of floodplain surfaces above the river channel dated from historical aerial images. Detailed analyses of ongoing incision were also calculated based on DEM of differences (DoD) using Structure‐from‐Motion (SfM) photogrammetry‐derived topo‐bathymetric models. The study applied the BACI (Before‐After‐Control‐Impact) approach that compared pre‐state (Before), post‐state (After) and reach (Control) that is not affected by potential external effects with degraded (impacted) reach to be able to distinguish the driver effects. Floodplain channel surface analyses indicate the maximum incision up to 4 m and incision rate of 5.7 cm/year that occurred in the most degraded reach. Moreover, cross‐section profiles point to accelerated incision of 24.5 cm/year in the last 10 years (2011–2021) by the propagation of incision upstream. Overall, the net changes from the UAV survey pointed to 22 759 m3 of gravel sediments, constituting outwash from the 1.6 km long channel system (2015–2022) by incision, whereas analyses of historical channel surfaces estimated erosion of 573 303 m3 from impacted reaches between 1949 and 2020. Incision evidence is only observed in the downstream part below the control section due to local drivers (channel regulation, comprising embankment and gravel mining that activated a backward erosion of the system with knickpoint migration upstream). This analysis shows the benefits of combining different sources of data to separate long‐term and ongoing channel responses and the BACI‐approach to better target cause–effect relationships in space and time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Results of spatial and temporal comparison of malaria hotspots and coldspots could improve the health measures of malaria control and eradication strategies. The study aimed to reveal the spatially and temporally independent correlations between the potentially most effective background variables and the number of autochthonous malaria cases. Methods: Relationships between malaria cases and background variables were studied in 2 km × 2 km sized quadrates (10 Central European and 10 African). In addition to the current habitat structure of the African sites, annual precipitation, and annual mean temperature, data of the above parameters detected in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries and currently in the Central European sites were included in the analyses (n = 40). Mann–Whitney tests, Principal Component Analysis, and Generalized Linear Models were used for the examinations. Results: In addition to the apparent significant positive correlation of malaria cases with annual rainfall and mean temperature, several correlations were found for habitat parameters. The cover of marshlands in the 19th-century habitat structure of Central European quadrates was considerably the same as in the recent African ones. The extent of rural residential areas was significantly smaller in the 19th-century habitat structure of Central European quadrats than in present-day African ones. According to the revealed correlations, the surface cover of rural residential areas is the main driver of the number of autochthonous malaria cases that we can directly impact. Conclusions: The study confirmed with historical comparison that not only the annual rainfall and mean temperature, the cover of marshlands and other habitats with breeding sites, but also the elements of the rural human environment play a significant role in the high number of autochthonous malaria cases, probably through the concentration and enhancing sites for vector mosquitoes. The latter confirms that a rapid urbanization process could reduce malaria cases in the most infected areas of Africa. Until the latter happens, extensive biological control of Anopheles larvae and chemical control (both outdoor and indoor) of their imagoes, further mosquito nets, repellents, and carbon dioxide traps will need to be applied more widely in the most heavily infested areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For accurate urban planning, three-dimensional (3D) building models with a high level of detail (LOD) must be developed. However, most large-scale 3D building models are limited to a low LOD of 1–2, as the creation of higher LOD models requires the modeling of detailed building elements such as walls, windows, doors, and roof shapes. This process is currently not automated and is performed manually. In this study, an end-to-end framework for the creation of 3D building models was proposed by integrating multi-source data such as omnidirectional images, building footprints, and aerial photographs. These different data sources were matched with the building ID considering their spatial location. The building element information related to the exterior of the building was extracted, and detailed LOD3 3D building models were created. Experiments were conducted using data from Kobe, Japan, yielding a high accuracy for the intermediate processes, such as an 86.9% accuracy in building matching, an 88.3% pixel-based accuracy in the building element extraction, and an 89.7% accuracy in the roof type classification. Eighty-one LOD3 3D building models were created in 8 h, demonstrating that our method can create 3D building models that adequately represent the exterior information of actual buildings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We mapped 22 soil ecogroups and 66 ecological mapping systems (EMSs), essentially current vegetation, for eight coastal counties in South Texas, from Refugio and Aransas County south to the Mexican border. We used supervised classification to extract land cover from 10-m resolution Sentinel-2 satellite imagery. We accessed Lidar point cloud information to derive vegetation height and then use it to distinguish among herbaceous, shrubland, and woodland-forest EMS types. We derived elevation and potential ponding information from Lidar. We created image objects (uniform polygons), from Sentinel-2 data, and attributed land cover, soil ecogroup, vegetation height, elevation, and ponding potential to the objects. We used those attributes of image objects to model EMS types. We completed heads-up modification of both land cover and EMS modeling results by using aerial photograph interpretation to improve results. The agreement between EMS-mapped type and 643 field-collected plots was >75%. The most abundant EMS types included Coastal and Sandsheet: Deep Sand Grassland (10.7% of the region); Native Invasive: Mesquite-Mixed Shrubland (5.0%); Gulf Coast: Coastal Prairie (4.6%); and South Texas: Sandy Mesquite Savanna Grassland (4.4%). The EMS results are nine times better resolution than currently available maps, and use of height to identify EMS type by distinguishing among herbaceous, shrubland, and woodland types enhanced mapping beyond what has been previously accomplished. The new EMS dataset will facilitate analysis of the distribution of habitats and modeling of species of conservation concern that are tied to EMS types or vegetation landscape patterns. Finer resolution EMS type maps can be combined with improved soil ecogroup maps to facilitate better identification of appropriate vegetation management and restoration options at resolutions that are useful to land managers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The National Aerial Photo Database is a collection of aerial photographs obtained through aerial photography using specific cameras or sensors with manned or unmanned aerial vehicles across the territory of the Republic of Indonesia. These photographs are stored in a computer system for easy access, management, and updating. No national aerial photo database system currently meets the need for accurate and complete aerial photos and other geospatial information to support decision-making. The present study aimed to develop a model for the National Aerial Photo Database from a geospatial intelligence perspective based on statutory regulations. The collection of aerial photo data in a centralized database commenced with scanning negative film based on location and flight paths and copying all digital data. The original negative films were scanned at 20 µm resolution in a Vexcel Ultrascan 5000 photogrammetry scanner. The resulting size of one scanned photo is 140 Mb to 160 Mb. This research adopts a qualitative research method with a case study approach. This research involved the electronic implementation of geospatial data and information by utilizing Geographic Information System (GIS) software, image and geospatial information data management, and the Scrum framework. This research concluded that geospatial intelligence efforts can better understand activity patterns, infrastructure development, and potential threats in the national territory. The insights gained from the aerial photo database aid in identifying trends, detecting anomalies, and assessing risks, all of which are critical for better decisionmaking in national security. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interaction of Anthropic interventions (rigid structures) with coasts is an essential aspect for understanding their geomorphic evolution and incorporating these data into adequate coastal management. This study analyses the short and long-term behavior (1985 to 2019) of shoreline at Santa Marta Bay (Caribbean - Colombia) and their relationship with coastal protection structures. The shoreline variations were analyzed through aerial photographs and satellite images using DSAS tools. The short-term assessment showed initial intense 1985–1991 erosion, with an average retreat speed rate of − 1.6 m·y− 1. It changed gradually since 2003, due to the construction of rigid structures and beach nourishment, decreasing shoreline retreat and even a progradation rate of 0.2 m·y− 1 was observed. The 2009–2019 period, despite recording a positive average value, exhibited a high percentage of erosion profiles. Therefore, in a decadal or long-term analysis (1985–2019), despite engineering works present positive results in the short term, new interventions are required. The coastal erosion is not uniform along the shoreline, because the area is a closed bay with small sediment inputs, the variations in erosion and accretion rates change with human intervention and the installation of new structures. Therefore, quantifying the scale and rate of shoreline changes and correlating them with anthropogenic structures is an essential step in assessing shoreline vulnerability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of unmanned aerial vehicles is increasingly present in agricultural activities, representing an important innovation tool, being advantageous, for example, for the management of difficult-to-access areas and continuous monitoring of plantations, producing, with a relative low cost, high quality images. In this sense, the present work aimed to use a remotely piloted aircraft to carry out a statistical-spectral analysis of vegetation indices in sugarcane plantations in the Brazilian Eastern Amazon. To achieve this objective, an EbeeSQ model aircraft was used, which has a multispectral camera with a Sequoia sensor, which allowed aerial photographs to be obtained in four distinct spectral bands: green, red, red-edge and near-infrared. For the spectral analyses, thirteen study zones were considered, where four vegetation indices were calculated: NDVI, SAVI, GNDVI and NDRE. After generating the indices, it was possible to perform descriptive statistics for each one of them, as well as for the pixels of the original photograph. Tests were also carried out to verify the normality of the data, as well as correlation and regression tests between the vegetation indices and the digital numbers of the aerial photograph. Through the analyses, it was noticed that the GNDVI was the index that best adjusted to the data, presenting the highest mean, range, magnitude of correlation and R-square. While, NDVI and SAVI presented the least satisfactory results. Finally, from the GNDVI, it was possible to perform an image classification and area calculation of the low, medium and high portions of the GNDVI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Meandering rivers experience fluctuations in width whenever riverbanks migrate in different directions or at different rates, which can be observed after individual floods. However, meandering rivers maintain approximately constant widths over decadal timescales. This implies some timescale below which width fluctuates as banks migrate independently, and above which width is maintained by a bank‐coupling process. This coupling is thought to occur either as point bar deposition events induce cutbank erosion (bar‐push), or as cutbank erosion events induce point bar deposition (bank‐pull). This coupling, however, has been challenging to observe in natural rivers due to limited event‐scale field data. We present results from a 4.5‐year campaign with 22 drone‐based lidar surveys of a single point bar and cutbank (∼0.35 km2 in area) on the White River near Worthington, Indiana, USA. The middle point bar experienced net erosion (5,400 m3), but net aggradation (17,100 m3) between 2019 and 2022 when including perennially submerged regions. This aggradation was less than the 35,700 m3 of cutbank erosion over the same period. Combined, we have observed widening (1.58 m/yr bend‐averaged; 3.08 m/yr near apex) over the study period as point bar deposition has not kept up with cutbank erosion. Finally, we suggest that the difference between bar‐push and bank‐pull as width‐maintenance mechanisms may not be resolvable by observing bend widening or narrowing alone without an advancement of current theory, such as determining a long‐term equilibrium width and measuring deviations relative thereto. Plain Language Summary: Rivers are critical resources for humans, their economies, and the environment. Meandering rivers gradually wander across landscapes as their inner banks grow and their outer banks erode. Our understanding of this growth and erosion is still limited over the timespan of individual floods, which are likely the events that cause river movement. Partly due to a lack of observations, this is a critical knowledge gap that needs to be filled for humans to more‐safely build and live alongside rivers. Over 4.5 years, we collected 22 high‐resolution laser scans of the landscape of a single meandering river bend on the White River near Worthington, Indiana, USA. We tracked growth and erosion by comparing these maps to one another. We found complex behavior occurring due to individual floods, but that year‐over‐year changes are more predictable. While the research community has a long‐held understanding that meandering rivers generally have stable widths over decades (unless water or sediment supplied to the river change), we used historical aerial photographs and modern laser scanning to find that this bend has been widening for >45 years. Key Points: We collected 22 drone‐based lidar scans of a single, rapidly migrating point bar and cutbank over 4.5 yearsWe observed high spatial and temporal variability in both point bar and cutbank deposition and erosionThe point bar did not accrete enough to match cutbank erosion, continuing an apparent ∼55 years of overall meander‐bend widening [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rockfalls are incidents of nature that take place when rocks or boulders break from a steep slope and fall to the ground. They can pose considerable threats to buildings placed in high-risk zones. Despite the fact that the impact of a rockfall on a building can cause structural and non-structural damage, few studies have been undertaken to investigate the danger associated with this event. Most of these studies indicated that the risk resulting from rockfall hazards is hard to forecast and assess. A comprehensive quantitative risk assessment approach for rockfalls on buildings is developed and described in this paper and applied for the Mtein village in Mount Lebanon. This method employs a 3D model to simulate the rockfall trajectories using a combination of digital elevation data, field surveys, and orthorectified aerial photographs. The spatial and temporal probability of rockfalls were evaluated using the analysis of historical data in two triggering-factor scenarios: earthquake and precipitation. The findings show that, during the period of 1472 years between the years 551 (the first observed large earthquake in Lebanon) and the current year of the study (2023), the temporal probability will potentially be equal to 0.002 and 0.105 in the cases of earthquake- and rainfall-triggered rockfalls, respectively, while the maximal damage values are expected to be 232 USD and 10,511 USD per year, respectively. The end result is a final map presenting the risk values assigned to each building that could be damaged by rockfalls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Mount Meager is a deeply eroded quaternary volcanic complex located in southwestern British Columbia (BC) and is known for its frequent large landslides. In 2010, the south face of Mount Meager collapsed, generating a long-runout debris avalanche that was one of the largest landslides (50 × 106 m3) in Canadian history. Over the past 14 years, the landslide deposit has been reworked by stream action, delivering large amounts of sediment to Lillooet River, just downstream. In this study, we investigate 10 years of geomorphic evolution of the landslide deposit using orthophotos and digital elevation models (DEMs) generated using Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry on aerial photographs acquired during unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) and Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) surveys. The SfM products were used to produce a series of precise maps that highlight the geomorphological changes along the lower Meager Creek within the runout area of the landslide. Comparison of DEMs produced from 2010, 2012, 2015, and 2019 imagery allowed us to calculate deposit volume changes related to erosion, transport, and redeposition of landslide material. We estimate that about 1.1 × 106 m3 of sediment was eroded from the landslide deposit over the period 2015–2019. About 5.2 × 105 m3 of that sediment was redeposited inside the study area. About 5.8 × 105 m3 of sediment, mainly sand, silt, and clay, were exported from the study area and are being carried by Lillooet River towards Pemberton, 40 km from Mount Meager, and farther downstream. These remobilized sediments likely reduce the Lillooet River channel capacity and thus increase flood hazards to the communities of Pemberton and Mount Currie. Our study indicates a landslide persistence in the landscape, with an estimated 47-year half-life decay, suggesting that higher flood hazard conditions related to increased sediment supply may last longer than previously estimated. This study shows the value of using SfM in tandem with historic aerial photographs, UAV photos, and high-resolution satellite imagery for determining sediment budgets in fluvial systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forests play a vital role in maintaining ecological balance and provide numerous benefits. The monitoring and managing of large-scale forest plantations can be challenging and expensive. In recent years, advancements in remote sensing technologies, such as lightweight drones and object-oriented image analysis, have opened up new possibilities for efficient and accurate forest plantation monitoring. This study aimed to explore the utility of lightweight drones as a cost-effective and accurate method for mapping plantation characteristics in two 50 ha forest plots in the Nayla Range, Jaipur. By combining aerial photographs collected by the drone with photogrammetry and limited ground survey data, as well as topography and edaphic variables, this study examined the relative contribution of drone-derived plantation canopy information. The results demonstrate the immense potential of lightweight drones and object-oriented image analysis in providing valuable insights for optimizing silvicultural operations and planting trees in complex forest environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article uses archival resources to investigate the material remains of tank warfare at Bullecourt. During the Battle of Arras, tanks were used to assist the British 1917 Spring Offensive. The first assault at Bullecourt was a complete disaster and in addition to the high infantry casualties, the majority of the tanks employed were destroyed on the battlefield. The action of the tanks, their routes and final positions in the landscape has often been neglected because accurate sources are limited. This article incorporates tankography viz. combining unit war diaries, contemporary historical aerial and ground photographs, and soldier's testimonies to determine the spatial distribution and possible sites for locating material remains of the derelict tanks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unfavorable orientations of geological discontinuities and their geometrical relationship with the topographic slopes play a crucial role in controlling slope instability. This study developed a GIS-based kinematic model based on the mutual relationship between topographic slope and geological discontinuities to delineate rockfall zones and understand their spatial association with debris slide head scars in the Anakeesta rock formation of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Tennessee, USA. We mapped the exposed debris slide head scars from aerial photographs, satellite imagery, and field surveys and orientations of geological discontinuities were measured from the field along with other geotechnical parameters. Findings revealed the presence of four distinct sets of discontinuities, resulting in 11 possible slope failure mechanisms that could predict 57% of the existing debris slide. Wedge failure was the most prominent mode of slope failure, with wedge forming between the bedding plane and a joint set predicted for 27% of all failures in the debris slide head scars. The final rock kinematical susceptibility model was developed using the cumulative prediction capacity of individual discontinuity-driven kinematical rockfall failures through a weighted sum analysis. The model classified 77.9% of the area as safe, 14.7% to be moderately, and 7.4% as highly prone to kinematical rockfall failure. The susceptibility model was validated using the receiver operating characteristic curve on test data, which yielded an area under the curve (AUC) value of 65%, indicating a discriminatory power of the model separating the debris slide and non-debris slide scars. Finally, the spatial association between the kinematical susceptibility model and existing debris slide was statistically confirmed through a spatial Kolmogorov–Smirnov test of complete spatial randomness, signifying the role of kinematic rockfalls in generating the debris slide scars in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article focuses on the Ottoman Period urban fabric of Silifke, a crucial historical town in Turkey. The aim of this paper is to develop a research framework for the transfer of cultural heritage and cultural continuity in multi-layered historical cities. In this context, investigating the level of sociocultural transition and physical permeability between layers is the main problem of the article. The scope of the study consists of an approximately 1.5 km2 (150 hectares) area within the boundaries of the 3rd Degree archaeological site determined in 1995 by the Adana Cultural and Natural Heritage Conservation Regional Board. In the case area, there are building remains and 58 registered buildings, 40 of which were built during the Ottoman Period. The findings and evaluations were examined in three parts: the periods before the Ottoman Period, the Ottoman Period, and the Republican Period. Analyses were developed independently or overlapped from archive documents such as the Presidential Ottoman Archive (BOA), provincial yearbooks, engravings of travelers, photographs, aerial photographs of different years, current maps, zoning plans, and conservation plans. Then, we made descriptions and inferences about urban change/transformation, which is affected by the political, economic, social, cultural, and environmental factors of the town and will shape the future change/transformation and management of the town. The ultimate goal is to set up a basis for the Silifke town center that will guide future interventions and design and planning policies for cultural continuity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the last decade, many aerial photographic archives have started to be digitized for multiple purposes, including digital preservation and geoprocessing. This paper analyzes the effects of professional photogrammetric versus consumer-grade scanners on the processing of analog historical aerial photographs. An image block over Warsaw is considered, featuring 38 photographs acquired in 1986 (Wild RC10, Normal Aviogon II lens, 23 × 23 cm format) with a ground sampling distance (GSD) of 4 cm. Aerial triangulation (AT) and dense image matching (DIM) procedures are considered, analyzing how scanning modalities are important in the massive digitization of analog images for georeferencing and 3D product generation. The achieved results show how consumer-grade scanners, unlike more expensive photogrammetric scanners, do not possess adequate recording quality to ensure high accuracy and geometric precision for geoprocessing purposes. However, consumer-grade scanners can be used for time and cost-efficient applications where a partial loss of data quality is not critical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mangrove forests have unquestionably high environmental and ecological value. Mangrove trees are believed to have habitat zonation that is controlled mainly by the relative sea level. However, earlier discussions of mangrove habitats have remained limited in terms of their quality and quantity because of a lack of high-resolution spatial information of microtopography and trees. To clarify mangrove habitability over a wide forest area, we compounded mobile laser scanning (MLS) and aerial laser scanning (ALS) LiDAR dataset of the Miyara River mangrove on Ishigaki Island, Okinawa, Japan. The MLS provided sub-canopy data, while the unmanned aerial vehicle ALS data mainly provided a point cloud of the canopy. We corrected point clouds and combined these data. The results indicated that ALS is unable to reconstruct the microtopography of the dense mangrove area well. Moreover, tree species were not identifiable from the ALS data. However, by applying MLS to the mangrove forest, we obtained high-resolution microtopography and tree information inside the forest, although the measurement area was limited to comparison with ALS. By combining ALS and MLS point clouds, 3D point clouds of the forest were well reconstructed. From these point clouds, a high-resolution digital elevation model was created. Subsequently, we segmented trees individually from composite MLS point clouds and identified each tree species. Consequently, the spatial distribution of thousands of mangrove trees was reconstructed at the Miyara River mouth. The spatial distribution of mangrove tree species together with earlier aerial photographs suggests that mangrove species have been segregated in accordance with changes in their elevation and environment over 40 years. Our findings suggest that the distribution of the species changed sensitively along with dynamic variation of the microtopography. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) in Ethiopia comprises the largest fraction of the Afro-Alpine ecosystem in Africa, which provides vital mountain ecosystem services at local, regional, and global levels. However, the BMNP has been severely threatened by natural and anthropogenic disturbances in recent decades. In particular, landscape alteration due to human activities such as red ash quarrying has become a common practice in the BMNP, which poses a major environmental challenge by severely degrading the Afro-Alpine ecosystem. This study aims to quantify the long-term volumetric changes of two red ash quarry sites in the BMNP using historical aerial photographs and in situ data, and to assess their impact on the Afro-Alpine ecosystem. The Structure-from-Motion multi-view stereo photogrammetry algorithm was used to reconstruct the three-dimensional landscape for the year 1967 and 1984 while spatial interpolation techniques were applied to generate the current digital elevation models for 2023. To quantify the volumetric changes and landscape alteration of the quarry sites, differences in digital elevation models were computed. The result showed that the volume of resources extracted from the BMNP quarry sites increased significantly over the study period from 1984 to 2023 compared with the period from 1967 to 1984. In general, between 1967 and 2023, the total net surface volume of the quarry sites decreased by 503,721 ± 27,970 m3 and 368,523 ± 30,003 m3, respectively. The extent of the excavated area increased by 53,147 m2 and 45,297 m2 for Site 1 and 2, respectively. In terms of habitat loss, major gravel road construction inside the BMNP resulted in the reduction of Afro-Alpine vegetation by 476,860 m2, ericaceous vegetation by 403,806 m2 and Afromontane forest by 493,222 m2 with associated decline in species diversity and density. The excavation and gravel road construction have contributed to the degradation of the Afro-Alpine ecosystem, especially the endemic Lobelia rhynchopetalum on the quarry sites and roads. If excavation continues at the same rate as in the last half century, it can threaten the whole mountain ecosystem of the National Park and beyond, highlighting the importance of preventing these anthropogenic changes and conserving the remaining Afro-Alpine ecosystem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seagrasses, rooted aquatic plants growing completely underwater, are extremely important for the coastal ecosystem. They are an important component of the total carbon burial in the ocean, they provide food, shelter, and nursery to many aquatic organisms in coastal ecosystems, and they improve water quality. Due to human activity, seagrass coverage has been rapidly declining, and there is an urgent need to monitor seagrasses consistently. Seagrass coverage has been closely monitored in the Chesapeake Bay since 1970 using air photos and ground samples. These efforts are costly and time-consuming. Many studies have used remote sensing data to identify seagrass bed outlines, but few have mapped seagrass bed density. This study used Sentinel-2 satellite data and machine learning in Google Earth Engine and the Chesapeake Bay Program field data to map seagrass density. We used seagrass density data from the Chincoteague and Sinepuxent Bay to train machine learning algorithms and evaluate their accuracies. Out of the four machine learning models tested (Naive Bayes (NB), Classification and Regression Trees (CART), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Random Forest (RF)), the RF model outperformed the other three models with overall accuracies of 0.874 and Kappa coefficients of 0.777. The SVM and CART models performed similarly and NB performed the poorest. We tested two different approaches to assess the models' accuracy. When we used all the available ground samples to train the models, whereby our analysis showed that model performance was associated with seagrass density class, and that higher seagrass density classes had better consumer accuracy, producer accuracy, and F1 scores. However, the association of model performance with seagrass density class disappeared when using the same training data size for each class. Very sparse and dense seagrass classes had replacedhigherbetter accuracies than the sparse and moderate seagrass density classes. This finding suggests that training data impacts machine learning model performance. The uneven training data size for different classes can result in biased assessment results. Selecting proper training data and machine learning models are equally important when using machine learning and remote sensing data to map seagrass density. In summary, this study demonstrates the potential to map seagrass density using satellite data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As cities consume increasing land area worldwide, we need more investigation of the effects of urbanization on forests. Here we provide a comprehensive example of how the growth of a city shapes its surrounding forests. We examine how forest area changed through time, the importance of fragmentation, and the drivers behind the spatial distribution of land uses. To assess land use change and its dependence on topography and soils, we interpreted aerial photographs of Cuyahoga County, Ohio, USA from 1938, 1979, and 2021. Over the past 220 years, Cuyahoga County experienced massive forest loss, to a minimum of 12% of the landscape, and modest recovery of forests on former farmland, to 21%. While clearing for agriculture was the primary cause of deforestation in the nineteenth century, development became the main agent of forest loss from the twentieth century to the present. One-third of current forests (6.7% of the landscape) were likely never cleared for agriculture. Most post-agricultural forests originated between 1938 and 1979. The median size of forest patches is 18 hectares, and 75% of points in forest fall within 50 m of an edge. Steeper slopes and lower elevations were more likely to remain and become forests. Quercus forests were three times more likely to be preserved than Fagus forests. To preserve forest biodiversity, conservation efforts should focus on protecting remaining forests from development—especially forests that were never cleared for agriculture and Fagus-dominated forests—and learning how to restore native biodiversity to developing post-agricultural forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]