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The study of human behaviour in office spaces has a long and varied history from the 1970s to a recent resurgence of interest today, examining elements of collaboration and activity and how those elements are affected by the design and configuration of space. These studies however produced scattered and some times contradictory results, due to the lack of larger datasets and common sets of methodologies. This thesis examines one such large dataset using a newly developed unified framework that includes a common structure for all data, a spatial model to represent configuration in multiple scales and a set of statistical methods to extract meaningful information. The dataset contains around 40 companies in the UK, most of which are based around London and are of different scales, from single-floor workplaces to large multiple-campus offices. A complete workflow for working with this dataset is described, including existing metrics from Visibility Graph Analysis in extensive detail, but also newly developed ones such as 'Travel Concentration', a metric meant to capture attractor-driven effects. The analysis focuses on examining spatial configuration against movement and interaction in three scales, at the floor level (macro), the room level (meso) and the location level (micro), allowing for insights to emerge for the various parts of the design process. A variety of statistical models is presented with different levels of predictive strength, and which can be used for different purposes, but which may also depend on the size of the dataset and how biased an approach is to be taken. The results show that, in general, movement was more predictable than interaction, but also that the latter was a much more complex activity that became more predictable when broken down to other types, such as visiting and chatting interactions. More specifically, it was found that in the larger scales, both activities were mainly affected by the seat density of the workplaces, while in smaller scales the attractor-driven nature of movement became more apparent. Interaction on the other hand was found to relate very much to the availability of space and thus potential people to interact with as it happened mainly in workspaces. The thesis provides these results in the form of characteristics of spaces that tend to attract each activity (as predicted by each statistical model), but also as actionable insights that a designer might use in the design process.

This thesis provides the first comprehensive exploration and assessment of the speculative office building in inter-war England. Both instruments of revenue and containers of office space, buildings of this type and period have been largely absent from the literature of architectural history, despite their growing importance, economically, functionally and architecturally. Similarly, neighbouring disciplines, including urban and economic history, have undervalued the significance of this specialised building type between the wars. This study offers a more complete account and understanding of how and why these often-imposing buildings were procured, designed, built and used, where this occurred and which firms and figures were most active in this urban developmental process. The focus is predominantly large English cities, especially London, a reflection of both the geographic locus of speculative offices in this era and the interests of Historic England, the Government's statutory body and co-sponsor of this study. However, by way of context, comparison and insight, examples and experience from further afield, especially America, are drawn into the narrative. Indeed, English speculative offices of this period can be considered as competing, vertically-challenged investment skyscrapers, machines to make urban land pay (to paraphrase the skyscraper architect Cass Gilbert), and 'business rivals, competitors for tenants, light and air, and prestige' (to quote skyscraper historian Carol Wills). The influence, direct and from afar, of American practice on the planning, design, marketing and management of rentable office space in inter-war England was remarkable and justified a transatlantic visit to examine a little-known journal that illuminates this relatively unfathomed area. Besides archival information preserved in record offices, other, less-thumbed contemporary sources include journals serving the property market and office equipment sectors and those lesser architectural and building journals with more modest lifespans or reach. Examination of the exteriors of surviving buildings, and illustrative interior photographs and floor plans in modern estate agency literature, provide additional, or sometimes the only detailed information, on some buildings. The thesis is both anatomical and thematic in approach and structure. The introduction establishes the need for the study, and its place within the literature, published and unpublished. The first chapter, prefaced with a historical overview of pre-First World War developments, considers the increasing and geographically concentrated demand for office space in the inter-war period, and how speculative offices met this with increasing efficiency - not only through bigger, better buildings but also in terms of how they were marketed and managed. The second chapter focuses on the leading economic actors in the property development process, the developers, bringing to light the activities, portfolios and personalities of some of the principal firms and individuals behind metropolitan and provincial office blocks. Chapters three to seven are a detailed survey and analysis of the architectural design and construction of inter-war speculative offices, with a separate but interlinked treatment of their planning, construction, external and interior styling, and essential service technologies. Running through these mostly chronological accounts are questions and considerations of cost, efficiency and influence, and factors limiting or pushing built form and expression, such as the legislative environment, size and shape of building sites, and the freedoms accompanying framed construction. The thesis concludes by drawing out and summarising the key findings - including a rebuttal of the pronouncements of financial journalists and property market historians concerning withered speculative development between the wars. It then considers broader themes: the impact of the First World War and its aftermath, American influence, speculative offices and organisational change, and the increasing congruence of speculative and custom-designed offices.

Buildings serve as vital accommodation for human beings, and this is one of the most energyconsuming sectors in today's world Office buildings in England account for 17% (27620 GWh/year) of total non-domestic energy consumption, while nearly 41.9% of total officebuilding energy was consumed by creating thermal environments (space heating, cooling and humidification) in office buildings (DBEIS, 2016). To reduce energy consumption and improve individual thermal comfort in office buildings, interest developed in personal comfort systems. Common-type personal comfort systems (up to the year 2019 – the time of writing) were demonstrated in the present study. However, excessively relying on personal comfort systems to maintain thermal comfort could potentially diminish the chance to adopt other thermal adaptive opportunities, leading to increased energy consumption. This thesis examines the potential influence of psychological interventions (feedback messaging in the form of energy feedback in combination with social normative information) on the thermal comfort and energy-use behaviours of occupants using personal comfort systems in the UK shared-office setting, with a view to reducing energy demand. A suite of three environmental room-based experiments involving 101 participants were designed and conducted during 2018-2019, including [1] the condition-validation experiment (checked the stability of the thermal environment and the air quality inside the environmental room); [2] the initial experiment (investigated the effect of feedback messaging with intended local climate control); [3] the final experiment (investigated the effect of feedback messaging with actual local climate control). Overall, it was found that feedback messaging can significantly affect both participants' intended and actual behaviours of using desk fans, resulting in reduced energy consumption without reducing thermal comfort, especially in warm conditions (27°C and 29.5°C). Detailed methodology and results are reported in Chapter 3, 4 and 5 of this thesis. Results and their implications are comprehensively discussed. Feedback messaging in conjunction with personal comfort systems could provide occupants with a new thermal adaptation opportunity. The finding of this study expands the range of parameters that influence thermal-related evaluations in office buildings, which means that psychological intervention (e.g. feedback messaging) could also influence people's subjective thermal evaluations alongside environmental parameters, clothing insulation and activity level. There could be potential for feedback messaging to be used as a management tool to save energy while retaining the sensation of comfort in offices, though it is essential that any health and well-being implications are fully investigated beforehand. A field-based investigation is recommended to be carried out on a larger scale over a longer period, with a more diverse sample, in the presence of other potentially influencing factors and adaptive opportunities prior to any application of feedback messaging in office buildings.

The aim of this research is to understand the line of development of airport design and consider whether airport architecture is inherently transient and doomed to obsolescence. Little has been written about the multidisciplinary nature of airport design and why, when, where and how new airport concepts have evolved so this is the contribution of this thesis. Airport design is different from other forms of architecture and engineering by virtue of the sheer scale of the development which is more akin to city planning. Because it is on a city scale it requires the input of many disciplines with different philosophies. This thesis analyses the role of architectural philosophies such as Futurism in capturing the spirit of flight and facilitating growth and change, the engineering approach to safety and operational robustness, the planning focus on connectivity and the environmentalist's concern with sustainability. The primary influences on the evolution of airport design, such as airline growth, aircraft characteristics, safety and security and commercial viability are considered, together with how technological advances in communication, mechanisation, automation and digitisation have helped airports avoid obsolescence. The evolution of design response has been looked at through several lenses: the architect concerned with the layout and form of the terminal, the engineer focusing on the design of the airfield, the planner developing the airport as an interchange, and the environmentalist making airport development sustainable. There are case studies to show which concepts have been flexible enough to accommodate growth and change. It concludes that the evolution of airport design can best be categorised in a series of stages each of some two decades. Pioneering Era 1920 to 1940 Evolutionary Phase 1940 to 1960 Jet Age 1960 to 1980 Transfer Interchange 1980 to 2000 Mega Hub 2000 to 2020 This research considers which airports have been adaptable, survived best and avoided obsolescence. The thesis concludes that airport master plan and terminal concepts have largely evolved in response to increasing traffic volumes, and that those that have proved most durable and avoided obsolescence are those that have planned for growth and change from the outset.

This thesis uses the typology of coworking and the values associated with it as a lens through which to look at the design of the broader workplace. It examines the ways in which people behave in these new working environments and how these designed spaces are planned, briefed, commissioned and evaluated. The study responds to a continuing gap in the knowledge around the spatial constitution and behaviours of coworking despite a growing interest from corporate organisations. Taking an inter-disciplinary approach that draws on environmental psychology, design practice and the social sciences, the thesis is rooted in both academia and industry, presenting four design studies that map the development and spatial manifestations of coworking and explore user behaviour in space. The thesis explores the values and spatial strategies of coworking through the quantitative analysis of 100 coworking home pages and 73 floor plans, and places coworking in the wider context of historical and current workplace development. Alongside this, it adopts design ethnography techniques to explore user behaviour in space at three different sites: the Impact Hub in Birmingham and Second Home in London - both coworking spaces - and Sony PlayStation in London, a commercial workplace seeking to build a more creative community. Each site uses different strategies for managing change and co-creation, but with the same aims of prioritising user experience and building and supporting collaborative relationships. In the original design study, new user-centred design tools for brief making and evaluation are developed and applied at the Impact Hub and Sony PlayStation. With relatively little academic research into the spaces of coworking, these design studies provide a platform to explore the values, infrastructures and spatial strategies associated with coworking, identify points of departure from established models, and identify whether there are central ideas within coworking that might be applied to the wider workplace. Six original contributions to knowledge are presented: a new definitional model of coworking, quantitative coworking spatial analysis, a design taxonomy of coworking spaces, an adapted framework for considering user experience, a user-centred design toolkit, and recommendations for incorporating aspects of coworking into wider workplace design. The study identifies that the success of a coworking space depends on the experience that they create. This relies on complex and evolving interactions between space, support and service infrastructures, brand identification and community management, and the thesis highlights that simply adopting the spatial strategies or aesthetics of coworking without acknowledging its careful curation of space and relationships is unlikely to produce the desired results. This presents new challenges for the briefing, design and ongoing management of the workplace, which are discussed in the thesis. This PhD concludes with insights into how the essential qualities of coworking might be used to reshape spaces for creative knowledge work alongside a set of practical tools and recommendations that relate to briefing, design and post-occupancy evaluation processes.

Hosting an Olympic Games can considerably change a city and community, its image and its infrastructure. The Games have the power to deliver long-lasting benefits in cities, but in recent decades the exponential growth in size and popularity of the event has been accompanied by escalating costs and economic pressures. The ability of the venues and Olympic Village to meet the needs of the host city after the Games is central to their long-term function, but the specialist nature and size of venues creates a major challenge for post Olympic use. Whilst some buildings constructed for the Games have prospered and attracted frequent use by the local community for many years afterwards, others have quickly fallen into intermittent and sporadic use, become abandoned or fallen into a state of disrepair. With the growing desire to host a sustainable Games a clear need for more longitudinal research has been identified. To address that need, this thesis examines architectural legacy, and its urban contextual dimensions, in the post-War European Summer Olympic Games cities of London (1948), Helsinki (1952), Rome (1960), Munich (1972), Moscow (1980), Barcelona (1992), Athens (2004), and London (2012). With a focus on four building types (Olympic Stadium, Aquatics Centre, Velodrome, and Athlete Village) the thesis presents a 64 year journey, examining urban and architectural legacy across these editions of the Games. A comparative case study methodology is used to identify the aspects of urban and architectural design that contribute to positive legacy in host cities. The overview of the unfolding of legacy, and proto-legacy developments, across a range of Olympic cities is a new contribution to knowledge in the field of Olympic Studies.

This thesis investigates how an architecture for music developed during the long eighteenth century in the British Isles. It discusses why certain venues were chosen, and how the spaces used for performance evolved architecturally during this period. It therefore provides an architectural history of the concert hall and the spaces used for secular music performance in the British Isles in the long eighteenth century. The thesis focuses on the British Isles, with particular attention given to London, Edinburgh, Dublin, and Oxford. It uses the historical record to identify spaces and venues used for secular music performance. It analyses the architectural features of these spaces and situates them within a cultural context, arguing that their choice and appearance was influenced predominantly by social and cultural trends, alongside the practical needs of musicians. By situating architectural changes within the broader socio-historical context of the eighteenth century, the thesis contributes to the historiography of cultural and architectural history, and opens up questions about the nature and place of vernacular architecture in eighteenth-century studies. The first three chapters are broadly chronological and situate changes in siting and appearance within a socio-historical context. Chapter One focuses on the effect of the Restoration and seventeenth century political events on the development of the music meeting and the use of the tavern as a performance venue. Chapter Two examines the impact of commercial and economic enterprise on the choice and appearance of concert venues. The third chapter analyses the construction of the first purpose-built concert venues, relating these projects to polite culture and the growth of a middle class. The final two chapters of the thesis take a broader approach. The fourth chapter explores the impact of urbanism and early town planning on the siting and fortunes of music performance spaces, whilst Chapter Five looks at the question of the 'architect' and the science of acoustics in the design and execution of spaces for music. The thesis demonstrates that architecture for secular music performance was guided and shaped by its socio-cultural context in the eighteenth-century British Isles. It ultimately argues that an architecture for music developed during this period, one that shifted from vernacular to polite forms of expression, and in the process contributed to the genesis of a new building type: the concert hall.

This research investigates the potential impact on design creativity of using parametric CAD methodologies (BIM design and algorithmic design) in the early design stage/process of hospital buildings. The research design consists of comparative studies between parametric and nonparametric CAD methods, and the study of creativity, which focuses on two domains: process creativity and product creativity. Besides, the study extends the creativity research to the area of reviewing design behaviour and design cognition to investigate the advantage and disadvantage of using CAD to improve, or hinder, the performance of the problem solver throughout the design process. The selection of research methodologies was designed to support evidence-based objective research findings. Dual methodologies were employed: 1. a retrospective questionnaire evaluation of design performance and 2. a computer-based protocol analysis of the on-going design process. The first part of the research findings went through a questionnaire survey and the data was mined, processed and statistically analysed using the SPSS package. Two seminal works were used and adopted as a bench mark criteria for assessing and determining creativity during the design process: that of Torrance's test for creative thinking (TTCT) for measuring creativity as a 'process' and that of Amabile for appraising creativity as a 'product'. The result indicates that parametric CAD, especially the algorithmic CAD method, significantly supports the creativity process during the initial hospital ideation process and is significantly different from the other two CAD methods in the production of idea numbers, variety, and uniqueness. While judging the product creativity of the hospital building design, the parametric CAD architects (the algorithmic CAD and the BIM design) both reported that the CAD working environment helped a lot in this regard. On the one hand, the BIM group replace reported with either that CAD supported them in their idea development, spatial functional coordination, and design message delivery. On the other hand, the algorithmic CAD group recounted that the CAD method enhanced the elaboration of their ideas and novel thinking. In the design cognition review, the computer-based protocol analysis was applied to investigate the ongoing design process with different CAD groups. It was found that when using the algorithmic CAD process, the participants could construct to a large extent reconstruct their long-term memory (LTM) in the design cognition process, which has ultimately assisted the architects' design learning and helped them focus more on the creation of the design strategy rather than repeatedly using the same examples. Thus, the algorithmic CAD process through suggesting different mathematical interpretation was found to reinforce cognitive design reasoning and offering varied idea segmentation (considered as a measure for divergent thinking, an essential indicator for creativity). It is believed that the CAD method can create a flexible with systematic and associative ideation activity. With this advantage of the algorithmic CAD program, this PhD study also discovered a parameter-based real-time design representation (3D models) and visible design content/script (node diagrams) so architects can instantly revise their design and update their cognitive processes to perform a better design synthesis and evaluate their proposed ideas. This PhD research will contribute to current architectural design knowledge and future hospital design research and will help to develop a better environment in healthcare design practice as well as in the areas of architectural CAD teaching and Its promotion within the curriculum.

Apparent deficiencies in the design quality of healthcare buildings raise an important issue for designers and users. It has been reported that designers have failed in fulfilling the clients’ expectations and requirements, which has resulted in a ‘design performance gap’. This research focuses on the design of hospital premises and the associated performance gap. The purpose of this study was to compare the way designers perform with the satisfaction levels of healthcare users and having done so, to produce a better understanding of how this might be improved. The first stage was a literature review of existing work on the assessment of design performance, performance gaps and ways of closing them, with particular focus on the key issues in the design of healthcare facilities. Two data collection methods were adopted: two surveys that encompassed Likert scale and open-ended questions, and a set of in-depth interviews. The first survey was assigned to designers to explore their awareness and response to important problems encountered in the design of healthcare facilities. This was followed up by in-depth interviews with selected designers. The second survey questioned the satisfaction of healthcare users about aspects of the design of their healthcare environment. Hypothetically, a variety of outcomes was possible based on the designers’ awareness (or lack of) of key issues in healthcare facility design, their response (or lack of) to these, and the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of healthcare users. In fact, two situations emerged (1) that in some respects designers are aware of the issues, think they are addressing them, and users are satisfied; (2) in other respects, however, although designers are still aware of the issues and believe they are addressing them, users are nevertheless dissatisfied. The conclusion is that designers have insufficient information on certain user requirements. Better user information is paramount for better design decision-making and for the quality of healthcare facility design. A conceptual framework and matrices were developed that could raise awareness of this and help in improving design decision-making through improved Post-Occupancy Evaluation and ultimately, with digital technology, be captured in a knowledge base. This framework and associated matrices have been developed at a relatively high level, and further work would be required to operationalize them for use in actual healthcare projects.

The use of temporary, prefabricated buildings in Britain during the twentieth century arose from wartime need to provide better, and perhaps more importantly, portable shelter for troops and equipment. This thesis provides the first comprehensive list of hut designs for the First and Second World Wars. The full lists and descriptions of each hut are given in the appendices. These lists, 20 types for the First World War and 52 from the Second World War, show the huge range and scope of the huts used and is the major contribution of this thesis. The concentration here is on generic types. Some huts were designed as one-offs and there is no possible way to catalogue these. This thesis has focused instead on those designs or industrially-produced types, which were meant to be produced en-masse as generic solutions to the problem: the sort of hut that might justifiably be given a name (such as a ‘Tarran’, a ‘Seco’, etc.). This thesis provides essential information enabling historians to be able to identify these types. It uses primary and secondary sources to trace the development of these huts and the effect that wartime shortages had on their design. Beginning with the earliest examples of temporary military building, it then focuses on the huts of the First and Second World Wars followed by a study of huts grouped in chapters by material. This research shows that the wartime period pushed industry to make giant leaps forward with construction methods and materials in just a few short years, where otherwise it may have taken decades. This thesis aims to provide the first overview of this process and to enable future researchers to identify and understand the development of these important wartime structures, many of which survive to this day.

Stigma has been seen as a barrier to the adaptation and reuse of buildings and for historic former asylums, the fear of the "madhouse" has been argued to have transferred to the buildings themselves. They are buildings which are both socially and historically challenging. However, as these sites have closed and have begun to be converted into residential accommodation, the negative perceptions of the asylum appear to have eased, to be replaced by an appreciation of their built form through their architectural and heritage features. Research into the reuse of historic former asylum sites is limited, as is research exploring the subjective or emotional influences on property development decisions. This research addressed this gap by investigating the phenomenon of reuse of historic former asylums. It did so through the examination of the intersecting factors involved in that process; the perceptions of the stakeholders in respect of place attachments, stigmas, and values ascribed to the sites. It also investigated the perceptions that stakeholders had of themselves, each other and the re-development process. Three historic former asylums in the North of England were identified to provide context to this research: St Mary's in Stannington, Northumberland, St George's in Morpeth, Northumberland and Lancaster Moor Hospital in Lancaster. Within the context of each of these sites, interviews were carried out with the different stakeholder groups involved in the redevelopment of these sites. These stakeholders were planners, developers, heritage bodies, former staff members and the owners of the sites. The public was also surveyed in Morpeth and Lancaster through questionnaires, as were new residents of converted former asylum sites. Through the analysis from this data collection, it was found that an acceptable level of stigma surrounding these sites persisted; any stigma that remained did not prevent the reuse and redevelopments from taking place. The buildings were viewed as heritage buildings but predominantly from an age or aesthetical value perspective rather than being valued for their specific history. However, this history was not simply forgotten or erased, it was often incorporated or used in subtle ways within the developments, the level to which depended on the individual developer and site concerned. This research brought together two areas of research in the built environment which are not often combined: heritage and real estate. The examination of the reuse of historic former asylum sites showed more fully the valorisation process of a historic iii building through the redevelopment and reuse process. In doing so, it highlighted that the reuse and redevelopment process of historic former asylum sites was a complex one. The valorisation of the sites through their age and aesthetics was connected to their perceived economic value which enabled the sites to be converted by developers; as the sites become reappraised as heritage and therefore valued as such, this consequently created a perception of economic value and therefore a demand for the properties. This research project also highlighted that as well as a perception of value, people were attached to these sites, including some of the professional stakeholders involved in the development process. Former staff members were strongly attached due to the length of time they had spent working and living on the sites. Some of the development professionals also expressed attachment or a sense of responsibility for sites that they worked on. This was an unexpected finding as they only worked on the sites for a relatively short time and were seen by themselves, as professionals, to be objective in their working lives. This revealed an interesting juxtaposition in that the professionals felt that they were objective experts in the process, unhindered by the emotions those non-development stakeholders were thought to feel. In fact, many of those non-development stakeholders held pragmatic views about the need for something to happen with the empty sites, something not anticipated by the development stakeholders.

The aim of this thesis is to investigate to what extent regulated office clothing affects the perception and adaptation of office workers to the thermal conditions surrounding their work environments, focusing on the city of Enugu in South Eastern Nigeria which has hot humid climatic conditions. Clothing, regarded as a second skin, allows us to adapt or adjust to the thermal conditions in our immediate surrounding environment. It also affects our perception of the thermal environment. In some offices however employees are expected to wear regulated clothing or uniforms, during the working day; for various corporate identity reasons. Field studies were undertaken in office spaces in Enugu involving the behavioural and environmental analysis of thermal comfort conditions in six typical case study office spaces, at the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) and Federal Road Safety Corps (FRSC). The thesis adopted a mixed‐mode methodological process; combining a quantitative and qualitative approach to data collection and analysis. The field research analysis found that all office spaces analysed were in compliance with the adaptive thermal comfort component of the ASHRAE Standard 55‐2013. The results however did not comply with the adaptive thermal comfort of CEN/EN 15251‐2007. The thermal sensation component of the results suggests a neutral temperature of 28.80C, with 80% thermal satisfaction, in a comfort range of between 25.40C and 32.20C. The thermal comfort vote indicates that approximately 85% of office workers with flexible clothing policy were comfortable at that comfort range, whilst only 55% of workers who had to adhere to a strict uniform policy voted that they were comfortable. The key research findings were: Firstly, the field observations and semi-structured interviews undertaken indicated that the strict uniform policy of FRSC office workers contributed substantially to the limited adaptation of staff to their workspace thermal conditions. Also, of all the thermal variables recorded during the field survey, clothing insulation had the strongest correlations to the thermal sensation of participants in the survey compared to indoor operative temperature, outdoor air temperature, relative humidity or metabolic rate. Furthermore, it is possible for workers in naturally ventilated office buildings in the hot humid climate zone of Enugu to achieve thermal comfort in higher temperature conditions through clothing adaptation.

This research examines the relationship between hospital lighting design and staff preferences with focus on visual performance and reduced energy consumption. A novel approach to hospital lighting design introduced by Philips (HealWell) was studied in a health care facility in Qatar. This Smart Lighting System combines both daylight elements and artificial light in order to maximize the benefit of daylight features, provides satisfactory lighting design solution and minimizes energy consumption. A mixed research method was utilized, which combines qualitative and quantitative methodologies, to combine both a detailed view of the meaning of the generalization of the concept under study and to enable a variety of techniques to be used in the research. These techniques including statistical analyses to investigate staff preferences for light through the use of surveys, which was followed by field experiments to test the hypothesis, to link it to reviewed literature, and finally provide a detailed analysis of the findings of this case study with conclusions drawn for hospital energy efficient lighting design in similar climates. The results revealed that when daylight was provided inside the hospital area through this Smart Lighting System, it was possible to improve visual comfort for occupants, and staff performance while increasing energy-efficiency. This solution can thus be considered for health care lighting design, in particular in hospitals that suffer from lack of daylight, i.e. in the countries where daylight is associated with high glare and high heat gain. Five published papers are included within this thesis in addition to the critical reviews for these published papers with particular attention given to lighting problems in hospitals, such as, visual comfort, energy efficient lighting design and the cost impact of lighting design.

Despite periodical refurbishments, hospital buildings appear to become less resilient over the long term. This thesis considers the underlying reasons for this loss of resilience and examines the implications for the wider hospital system. Decisions made during a project can radically alter its course, resulting in highly successful outcomes or alternatively, in projects facing budget overruns, delays, partially or wholly unfulfilled objectives, disappointed end-users, and inadequate buildings. Refurbishment change is examined through the lens of resilience at three levels of magnification; initially, the focus is on refurbishment projects in hospitals; this is followed by an examination of the wider refurbished hospital building; and finally, consideration is directed towards the NHS Estate. Project changes may be particularly challenging when they relate to measures aimed at adapting buildings to future climate change. Specifically, there may be little enthusiasm for expenditure devoted to future needs, when funding is insufficient to meet today’s urgent priorities. Where Trusts have large portfolios of property, pre-emptive climate adaptation measures will take considerable time to realise, and accordingly, necessary measures must be in place before any climate-related risk to vulnerable patients becomes life-threatening. Hospitals are extremely intricate buildings, both in terms of function and of the services that underpin the care process. Relatively small changes, either temporary or permanent, made during the course of a project can have significant repercussions for the hospital. A systems approach has been adopted to explore the relationships and connectivities that may be affected by the hospital refurbishment process. The research findings include the identification of change and resilience mechanisms in refurbishment projects. A framework for mapping change trajectories is presented, to assist in the analysis of propagating changes that affect refurbishment processes. The thesis also makes recommendations for what should be considered in hospital refurbishment projects to improve their overall resilience and reduce vulnerability to major impacts, particularly those that may arise as the UK climate changes.

Town halls are the key expression of civic consciousness in the urban environment. They were constructed at a period of change for local government, when there was an urgent need for transition to an altered method of control. They enable a degree of civic access and ritual, and encapsulate important messages of local culture and heritage, in an effort to appropriate them to boost the legitimacy of the political process. The change expressed by their building can be read as a microcosm of the town; and from the town, the city and country: the majority of concerns and triumphs expressed at local level echoed those being voiced nationally, tracking flux in the narrative of social and political history. This research shows that the town hall provides the resolution of local authority change: it is a static statement of a great political transformation, easing the passage of a local authority’s development from a point of weakness and uncertainty to a position of strength. For this transition to be managed effectively, the ability of the town hall to express power is vital. This power is expressed through a broad range of source materials, including local and national sources of culture and history, and latterly, international inspiration as well. The function of the town hall’s architecture as a civic space designed for social ritual changed dramatically during the period studied, from making public involvement the design’s key driver in nineteenth century designs, to their relegation to external gathering spaces in the twentieth century. The social history of a locality was a frequent tool in the legitimisation of town halls – an effect heightened by the numerous strategies employed by their municipal designers to inculcate the suggestion of power within their construction. These could include the inclusion of redundant but impressive features, widespread demolition or the use of a culturally-significant location. This thesis describes how the narratives of power, ritual and civic access, drawn out during the construction of town halls, mirror those of contemporary society. It addresses the question of the role of town halls for urban society, and how they serve as monuments to distinct periods in the development of urban civilisation.

The subject of this thesis is 'Ethical Principles for Hospital Design'. The mission of this research is to identify the ethical principles for hospital design in the form of a structured framework for ethical discourse about the medical environment. I think this thesis addresses a gap in the current literature, in which, there is not really an already existing structured framework for ethical discourse about the hospital environment. The ethical principles for hospital design can guide designers to identify their ethical duties toward users of the hospital environment (e.g. patients, staff, and visitors). For this sake, I will be engaging with literature that is critical of using the concept of dignity in biomedical contexts, as well as, Nussbaum's capability understanding of dignity. In the introductory chapter, I will explain my reasons for working on this subject and briefly introduce the content of each chapter. In the second chapter, I will discuss the concept of human dignity from the viewpoint of Kant. I will then consider the standpoint of Nussbaum in relation to the meaning and the theory of human dignity. In the third chapter, I will link the idea of human dignity to the notion of human entitlements in the hospital environment. In this regard, I will explain and develop the implications of human dignity in Nussbaum's thought and, accordingly, I will suggest a list of the entitlements of people in hospitals. Such a list of entitlements is the first part of the ethical method in hospital design which I call the dignity approach. The second part is addressed in the fourth chapter, in which I will suggest and elaborate upon three ethical principles; namely, design for vulnerability, design for healing, and design for reverence. These will form my proposed basic ethical principles of hospital design grounded in respect for human dignity and entitlements. Suggesting the dignity approach, I will, also, be critiquing and seeking to supplement in a certain way the influential Evidence-Based Design approach in hospital design. The last chapter will supply a conclusion of the arguments of this thesis and indicate some directions for future research.

Building skins have become an expression of the unique forces that are defining their context, either tangible such as weather conditions or intangible, such as social and cultural heritage. Egypt is currently experiencing excessive importation of Western technology and design concepts in architecture due to the desire of rapid development accompanied by social and political changes, threatening its culture and causing an identity crisis. Nowadays, office building design in Egypt adopts the design principles of fully glazed western buildings that were built for different environmental conditions and cultures. The negligence towards local climates and heritage, especially in a country with a hot desert climate and a rich culture like Egypt, resulted in unsatisfactory building performance. The satisfaction of occupants with their work environment is important, both regarding well-being and productivity. Therefore, ensuring acceptable environmental conditions must be achieved along with the need to include sustainability–performance related features within any design. For office buildings, two of the primary energy demands are associated with artificial lighting and thermal comfort. Therefore, any approach that attempts to reduce excessive solar gains while enhancing daylight availability can be considered as a sustainable design strategy. Building skin is the key moderator between the internal and external environments. Historically, the environmental control through façade was static. However, recent technological advances enabled building skins to dynamically react to the external environment with the aim of enhancing internal conditions. Territorial adaptive building skin (TABS) is one example of this new types of building skins. The methodology proposed in this research employed a parametric modelling, building performance simulation and Genetic Algorithm tools for optimising the performance of TABS for a south facing office space in Cairo, Egypt, based on predefined criteria, at twelve different times during the year. The TABS integrated two subsystems: (1) Shading: a dynamic geometric pattern inspired by the Egyptian solar screen ‘Mashrabia’; (2) Daylight redirecting: active horizontal louver system, to harness the advantages of both strategies. The results showed that TABS achieved the required performance at all the twelve examined times using it's predefined capabilities regarding six performance indicators (task points illuminance levels, illuminance contrast ratio, daylight distribution, daylight penetration depth, solar gain and glare). Moreover, the TABS performance surpassed the performance of the fully glazed base case and two other optimised traditional façade solutions at all examined times. Furthermore, in this study, each physical appearance of the optimised TABS solutions was an authentic representation of the Mashrabiya form, which continually achieved to represent the Egyptian cultural identity. An empirical validation process was conducted using 3D printed physical models of optimised TABS in an artificial sky facility. Acceptable agreement between the validation and simulation models regarding illuminance values was achieved. Finally, the findings proved that TABS could be a complex geometry that satisfies the ornamental desires of the contemporary architecture and address the concerns over building performance and user comfort.

The aesthetics of motorway architecture has not received attention within theoretical photographic discourse and has never been the subject of an academic photographic research project. This project begins from the understanding of the motorway as one continuous piece of architecture that crosses international boundaries on its route across Europe – an architecture so large that it cannot be perceived in its entirety. As a research-by-practice PhD, photography is used to identify and record incidents of the sublime in the route of the motorway. The photographs are produced with a large field study from the Swiss Alps to Naples, where numerous complex topographical and spatial conditions are found. This results in incidents of the sublime within its architecture when the motorway is forced to negotiate these conditions during its route. The research domain was chosen for its significance within the history of art and literature in European cultural history. Travelling in these regions was and is strongly related to the development of cultural concepts of the sublime. The questions that this research investigates are: Is it possible to make a depiction of architectural, spatial, topographical factors combined in a sublime incident? Can a methodology be defined to photograph these structures? How can photographs be made of large-scale architecture that cannot be seen or experienced in their entirety? The meaning of the term sublime has become diluted in contemporary usage, often being used inaccurately in description of something exquisite or delightful. This project revisits 18th-century formulations of this aesthetic categorisation, alongside historical travel literature, representations of landscape in painting and photography and contemporary architectural and photographic discourses. These references enable a thorough understanding of principles of aesthetic composition, resulting in the creation of a new understanding of the sublime and methodology for photographing large-scale motorway architecture. Employing a photographic aesthetic that embraces representation and post-production enhancement of Fine Art practice, the project culminates in the production of 29 photographs that form a narrative series exploring incidents of the sublime within motorway architecture between the Alps and Naples.

This research focuses on four main topics: Children’s’ Cognitive Development as it relates to age-appropriate interior design; Children’s Hospital Design and healing environments; Public Spaces in Hospitals – interior architecture and interior design; Contextual Issues – specifically, the religious, ethnic and national context of Palestine. Literature indicates that research is needed in the design of healing environments for children in order to create spaces that are child-friendly and meet their cognitive development needs. There is little research available about the design of the public areas of children’s hospital including the main entrance, atrium and thoroughfares. Also, most empirical research uses traditional social science methods to understand the requirements for healing environments for children (e.g. interviews, observations). Few studies use design- or arts-based approaches. Furthermore, most research has been conducted in the West, with little research from other countries, like Palestine, where few hospitals are devoted only to children. This research aimed to determine: (1) key design factors, functions, constraints and programme requirements for designing the public spaces of children’s hospitals in an age-appropriate way to promote healing; (2) how context-specific issues relating to Palestine play a role in determining the key design factors. From a critical analysis of the literature, specific research questions and the development of a primary research plan were developed. The main research question is: For a new children’s hospital in Palestine, how should the public areas (i.e., main entrance, atrium, and throughfares) be designed so that they are suitable for all age ranges and promote healing? In Palestine, qualitative data were collected during nine co-design and cocreation workshops that included arts-based activities and semi-structured interviews. Participants included children from 3-18 years, parents, doctors, nurses, reception and admissions staff, and four groups of designers. All participants, excluding the designers, participated in drawing and modeling activities. The use of drawings with children is an indispensable tool because their verbal expression is often not highly developed, and because preferences and ideas can be expressed more intuitively. Similarly, models can be effective tools because children can express ideas and preferences about form, materials and size through them in a way that words alone cannot describe. This study uses a thematic analysis approach to analysing the qualitative data. The results of data analysis were sorted into main themes and sub-themes. The key findings of this study are: context-specific issues (i.e. culture, gender, separation and religion issues); physical environments: interior architecture and interior design – medical spaces (e.g. emergency, outpatients, triage room and others); non-medical spaces (e.g. play areas, indoor and outdoor green areas, entertainment activities, spaces for eating, reception, waiting areas and admissions); interior design elements (e.g. image design, art, form and shape, wayfinding signage, and colours); and environmental considerations (e.g. noise, hygiene, smell, and light). These findings will inform guidelines and recommendations and will be supported by visual models for the design of children’s hospitals, particularly public spaces in the particular context of Palestine. The guidelines will contribute to the creation of supportive healing environments for all stakeholders, but particularly for children. This study demonstrates that practical design methods in the research process can be very effective in fostering creativity and in drawing out ideas and preferences from young children and other stakeholders. Such methods provide a novel approach to the design of healing environments for children.

The creation of a network of new and regenerated public spaces across London over the past decade has been widely represented as a means of improving the quality of life of local communities through a design agenda that has seen millions of pounds of public money invested by the Greater London Authority in place-specific projects across the capital. Limited research has been carried out, however, to understand the social impact or value of this investment and, whilst prizes have been awarded and official narratives have celebrated the success of these projects, no official evaluation has been carried out to understand the real social impact of these projects and thereby to establish the extent to which the policy objectives of fostering the public life of these neighbourhoods and of strengthening bonds of community have been been achieved. Aiming to address a gap in the existing research literature, this study investigates three local town squares across Greater London - in Acton, Barking and New Addington - that have been funded by the Mayor of London. Using a mixed methods approach, the empirical research draws on observations of everyday life in action and the lived experience of ordinary local people to understand the impact of the projects from the perspective of those stakeholders whose lives these projects were designed to transform. Comparing these 'everyday' narratives with policy agendas and the 'official' narratives of planners and designers, the evidence reveals a significant disconnect between the visions and objectives of mayors, planners and architects and the lived reality and everyday experience of these regenerated places, suggesting a failure of the design agenda to achieve its desired policy objectives. The study raises concerns about whose realities are represented int he imaginaries of politicians, policy-makers and urban designers and about how these relate to the lived experiences of ordinary people. It highlights a lack of consensus about how we value and measure what is 'good' public space, reminding us that a completed project is only one source of 'value' and that its after-life is of consequent and more essential importance. The research highlights the consensus required to make a 'good' city and suggests the need for re-establishment of the shared goals of community, identity and belonging, notions that should underlie the ambitions and desires of all parties.

The rationale of this study is to investigate the relationship between the design characteristics of atrium office buildings and the performance of the occupants leading to organisation effectiveness. A central theme is to understand the spatial configuration of the accommodation within and surrounding the atrium space and how this affects office worker behaviour. The background to this study was established through a comprehensive literature review that considered what is known about knowledge worker performance and workplace productivity and how these are measured from a behavioural perspective. The literature review established that there was a need to better understand the behaviour of office workers within the entire office building setting and presented the hypothesis of whether the particular design qualities of an atrium office design could enhance worker performance and organisational effectiveness by facilitating co-worker connectivity, a sense of community and employee well-being. Five office building and their occupants were studied during the research period using a mixed methods case study methodology which employed questionnaires, interviews, drawings, surveys and observations. Two of the office buildings were occupied by the same organisation and formed the foundation study. Crucially one of the office buildings had an atrium and the other did not. The comparative analysis resulted in several emerging themes that influenced the behaviour of the office workers within the atrium office building. These themes were then further tested in three subsequent case studies performed in owner occupied atrium office buildings of a similar size but with contrasting atrium designs and with occupants involved in different work purposes. These studies resulted in the derivation of several key design characteristics and spatial relationships that appeared to impact on worker performance and organisational effectiveness and which can be employed by designers and investors of office buildings towards the development of facilitating work environments.

This thesis explores the importance of the United Kingdom’s composition as a multinational state to the decoration of the new Houses of Parliament, constructed by Sir Charles Barry following the destruction of most of the old Palace of Westminster by fire in 1834. Over seven chapters, it examines the decorative schemes undertaken between the 1840s and 1860s by Barry and the Fine Arts Commission, followed by later, individual programmes, the last of which was completed in 1928. This study develops the twin notions of the art of union and the art of disunion to analyse the complex relationship between the Union and Parliament’s decorative schemes. The art of union is used to identify the elements of the New Palace of Westminster’s planned or completed decoration that validated and promoted the Union. Meanwhile, the art of disunion is deployed as a means of analysing the works of art that caused disunity and division. Examples of the art of union in the Houses of Parliament have led to it being described as a very British building. However, this thesis argues that this is an inadequate description. Though Scotland, Ireland and Wales are represented in the building’s decoration, it is England that dominates. Therefore, this study argues that Anglo-British is the most accurate term with which to describe the sense of national identity embodied by the Palace of Westminster. However, the Anglo-Britishness presented over the lengthy period covered in this thesis is not a consistent and homogenous vision, but one that is varied, complex and, at times, contradictory. There is also a clear development in the general form that it takes: beginning with a relatively inclusive Anglo-Britishness that gives some recognition to the UK nations other than England, it becomes increasingly Anglocentric and imperialist over the period examined.

My research explores the early to mid-twentieth century architecture of the Public Works Department (PWD) in Nigeria. It does this by examining official colonial records, PWD surviving buildings and architecture professional records. By adopting these three strands of investigation, the research aims to better understand the department’s building operations, building types and designs, and the composition of its architectural personnel. More importantly, the research aims to demonstrate that a study of Nigeria PWD architecture significantly contributes to wider debates on tropical imperial architecture and Nigeria’s colonial architecture. There has been a host of previous literature on empire and its influences on architecture in the tropics, with a number of these studies examining the PWD in some former imperial environments. However, Nigeria’s imperial architecture literature is mostly limited to the country’s late colonial tropical modernist works, while the PWD remains largely un-researched. The only previous work found on Nigeria PWD architecture, is Davidson’s 1957 The architectural works of the ministry of works, Western Region, Nigeria. This focuses on drawing approvals, the architectural staff strength, and the building output and climatic design factors employed. But this is all presented in a two page article that provides very limited insights. Are the issues raised in Davidson’s study all there is to PWD architecture in Nigeria? Other emerging questions will be - what comprehensive building operations did the department undertake? What were the building types constructed, and was climate the only design consideration? Who were the architects, why had they worked there at the time, and what was the relation to Nigeria’s early architectural profession? To answer these questions and obtain the insights needed to build on Davidson’s 1957 study, the research methods employed are - archival investigations, to source official colonial records; fieldwork, to track down surviving PWD buildings; and unstructured interview so as to obtain a veteran’s account of working in the department. The data obtained is analysed in the three sections of PWD building operations, PWD building output and PWD architectural personnel. The main findings which emerge therefore are that, (a) although PWD building operations were being implemented at all levels by colonial officials, the native administration level imbibed significant native operational inputs; (b) Although PWD buildings were mainly initiated to serve colonial administrative purposes, the designs largely portrayed architecture as a vital tool for improved tropical health; and (c) although PWD architects were perceived as agents of a grand imperial building scheme, in reality they had functioned more as professionals taking up practice opportunities. On the whole, the mainstream arguments have mainly stressed the PWD’s role in imperial building agenda. However, the findings of the research indicate and also further the argument that within this wider agenda, the PWD also operated in what may be termed as localized agendas. While this better addressed the practical realities of working, building and living in the colonies, it also aimed to limit certain colonizer-colonized barriers.

Professional classical singing requires dedication and a significant amount of practice in order to properly sing the challenging pieces. Classical singers not only practice to become an expert in their techniques but also must understand the context, emotions and delivery of each musical piece. Acoustics of practice rooms are crucial as the singers spend most of their learning process in these rooms. Previous research on singers’ voice focused on the voice and vocal health issues. This allowed improved treatments and techniques in the clinical practice for singers’ vocal health. However, little research has been undertaken on how room acoustics affect the voice dosimetry and perception of classical singers. This research examines singers’ objective vocal dosimetry and subjective perception data together with the room acoustic parameters with an aim to find the preferred practice room conditions of the Opera singers. Singers are known to be professional voice users which are a group at risk from voice disorders. Therefore improving their singing environment for their vocal health is as necessary as the improvement of clinical practice. This research aims to find out the effect of the room environment on the vocal loading parameters and subjective parameters of the Opera singers with a focus on the practice rooms then to find out singers’ preferred practicing conditions to suggest target values for the room parameters that show correlation with the singers’ parameters. For this purpose, research was undertaken with the kind assistance of 117 Opera singers. First a pilot study was conducted in the Acoustic Laboratories of the London South Bank University in order to determine and validate the methodology of the research, second a Field study in the practice rooms of the Royal Academy of Music was conducted with an aim to find the relationship between singers’ data regarding their vocal dose parameters, perception and preferences of the acoustics of the practice rooms and thirdly, as a side study of the research, to find out Opera singers’ daily vocal load during a typical working day in order to make a comparison with daily vocal loading of professional voice users. It was found that there was no significant change in the Opera singers’ vocal loading in the laboratory spaces even though these rooms had extreme acoustic conditions in terms of background noise and reverberation. Likewise, no significant change was observed in their vocal loading parameters in the practice rooms. However, students’ subjective response to the different acoustic conditions of the practice rooms showed significant change and very strong correlations were observed with the T30 room acoustic parameter at 4k octave band and C80 from 500 Hz to 4 kHz. Using the information a preferred design for practice room acoustics for Opera singers was established based on room dimension, T30, C80 and G parameters at the frequencies showing the greatest correlation with the singers’ data that correspond to singers’ preferred ratings. In addition, the results of the side study showed that the Opera singers’ daily sound pressure levels due to overall vocal activity including both speech and singing and due to only singing were higher than other professional voice users such as teachers and call-centre operators and these levels were found to be reached over a shorter phonation time which showed that they are exposed to higher vocal loading.

Roman city walls impress even today through their scale and magnificence, but they remain relatively underrepresented in studies of monuments within the urban environment. This thesis explores the contribution that city walls can make to our understanding of urbanism and society in Augustan Italy. It concludes that city walls can reveal important insights into how urban space, cultural identity, political relationships and social behaviour were negotiated and defined. This research situates city walls within the context of monumental public architecture in Roman cities, providing an integrative analysis of city walls as part of the urban narrative. It argues that city walls and their gateways should be studied as a social and political statement in order to gain a proper understanding of their character and meanings. Built more for show than for protection, Augustan city walls were icons of visual dominance and cultural manipulation of the landscape. They manifested in physical form ideas of status, self-representation and civic pride. Much more than a functional defensive asset, city walls provided a symbolic and psychological frame to the urban area. City walls embodied community-specific decisions driven by practicality, ritual and ideology as part of an ordered and meaningful use of public space. They demonstrated how an urban community wished to be perceived, incorporating social and historical associations which reflected the needs, aspirations and memories of the community they enclosed. The thesis also presents a new and comprehensive collection of inscriptions from Roman Italy relating to city walls, which are analysed to investigate the power of patronage, the discharge of civic obligations, opportunities for self-promotion and the combined use of text and imagery to maximise impact and display.

Sports stadiums have a considerable impact on the urban, environmental and social context. In particular, where several new stadiums are built within the same city for a single mega-event like the Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games or Soccer World Cup the implications are significantly higher. Therefore the requirements for operation of each stadium after the mega-event are of great importance to ensure sustainable integration into the urban, environmental and social context as well as maximized utilization on a long-term basis. In the first part of this thesis a review of the subject is presented. A brief history of the development of stadium design in the Olympic context, evolving requirements for staging Olympic Summer Games, the structure of organizations involved, existing literature research and certification methods are summarized. In the second part the methodology and development of the bespoke research tool based on existing certification systems such as BREEAM, LEED and DGNB is described. Subsequently, case studies for three different stadium types (Olympic Stadium, Indoor Stadium and Football Stadium) used for the Olympic Summer Games in Sydney (2000), Athens (2004) and Beijing (2008) are analysed based on literature research, field surveys and interviews. The comparative assessment of each stadium type is conducted with an evaluation matrix in three denominations: urban category, environmental category and social category. In each category two indicators with two respective parameters are evaluated based on a five-point score system. Subsequently the general applicability of the research tool is verified with an example appraisal of Wembley Stadium which was used for the Olympic Summer Games in London (2012). Conclusions are drawn in the third part of the thesis, separately for each of the three denominations urban category, environmental category and social category. In the urban category sports stadiums built on a site previously used for sports venues or adjacent to other existing venues are rated significantly higher, because existing sites are already integrated into the urban context and located in proximity to the city centre as well as other mixed-use areas resulting in synergy effects with extended catchment areas and good connectivity. In the environmental category sports stadiums are rated higher if specific requirements for operation of the sports stadium after the Olympic Games are already considered in the design to ensure maximised adaptability and flexibility. Dismantle of the overlay (tailor-made structures/installations required for staging the event) after the Olympic Games reduces energy consumption in subsequent operation. Overlay designed for permanent usage or reuse at a different venue further increases the level of sustainability. Usage of energy efficient systems with power generation and water conservation preserves resources. In the social category sports stadiums are rated higher if a balanced proportion of sport usage and other usages is achieved. The long-term utilization of a sports stadium correlates with the level of urban integration, urban context, building type and usage mix. Sports stadiums utilized by more than one home team and integration of other usages (e.g. retail, commercial, recreation, etc.) achieve a significantly higher level of utilization. The last chapter summarizes recommendations for stadium design in the Olympic context. To ensure a long-term utilization of each sports stadium after the Olympic Games it is suggested that applicant/candidate cities carry out comprehensive feasibility studies in collaboration with an operator to develop a bespoke project brief and business plan for operation of each venue at bidding stage. In order to enhance the existing knowledge base it is further recommended to collect and compare operational data (e.g. water, energy consumption etc.) from the different venues of the hosting cities to allow an independent assessment of the level of sustainability during long-term operation. Additional data to verify indicators relating to design efficiency such as average construction area per seat as well as dead loads of spectator stands and roof structures should be compared for establishment of benchmarks to verify the efficiency of the structural elements for an even more sustainable design of sports stadiums.

Buildings account for about 40% of global energy consumption and contribute 30% of all CO2 emissions. This research project investigated extant office building development in Abuja, Nigeria with a view to establishing typical energy performances. Energy end uses were critically analysed to identify energy saving potentials. The research evaluated design variables that can be used to facilitate low energy building design and determine enhanced performances in the Nigerian and regional context. The research initially adopted a case study approach that involved fieldwork surveys and walk-through energy audits in which 22 office buildings were investigated belonging to four performance based categories developed for the research. Also, based on a building inventory survey form developed for this research, building information obtained included the buildings physical components, energy use management and energy end uses. This enabled typical energy performances of the office building categories to be deduced using three widely used indicators; the Energy Use Index (EUI), the Energy Cost Index (ECI) and the Carbon Emission Index (CEI). Also, disaggregated energy end use showed an average distribution pattern of air conditioning, lighting, equipment and building services in the ratio 59%, 15%, 43% and 4% respectively. This showed the potentials of energy savings by reducing cooling load. With the aid of computer based simulation (using IES-VE software) the research further evaluated the impacts of nine architectural design variables (identified from design guidance for low energy buildings as well as design recommendations for tropical climates) on building energy consumption using simplified models of the case study office building categories. From all these, an impact hierarchy of the design variables was deduced and the appropriate low energy design strategies were developed. This showed potential energy savings of up to 20% was achievable. Also benchmarks for enhanced building performance targets for all the categories were proposed for the furtherance of a sustainable built environment in a developing world context.

A substantial amount of credible evidence shows that properly designed healthcare built environments can positively impact upon the health outcomes of the building users. This offers an opportunity to improve the quality of healthcare through appropriately designed healthcare built environments. Evidence-based design (EBD) emerged within healthcare building design practice to enhance the process of designing with credible evidence. This research explored improvement opportunities for EBD in the UK which would subsequently improve the quality of healthcare through built environment interventions. Specifically, three key research gaps were addressed during this research. Firstly, this research explored current practices of evidence use during healthcare designing and opportunities to increase the direct use of research-based evidence and alternative ways of conveying research-based evidence into the design process through other source of generic evidence for design. Secondly, this research explored how evidence could be effectively expressed within healthcare design standards, guidance and tools (SGaTs) in the forms of performance and prescriptive specifications. Finally, considering the unique nature of built environment design, this research explored how project unique contextual circumstances impact EBD processes and how practitioners reflect on these circumstances. These challenges were then transformed into six objectives. Following a comprehensive literature review, this research was divided into four phases. First, a model of the sources and flows of evidence (SaFE) was developed to represent evidence for EBD within generic evidence for design. The initial conceptual model was developed through desk study, based on the literature review, self-experience and the experience. This model was then verified with the comments from five un-structured interviews conducted with lecturers and senior lecturers of the School of Civil and Building Engineering. Finally, the model was validated using 12 semi-structured interviews conducted with design practitioners from the industry. In addition to the validating the sources and flows of evidence these interviews revealed rationales behind design practitioners use of evidence from four types of evidence sources. These results revealed improvement opportunities to increase the intake of research-based evidence use during healthcare built environments designing. The main data collection method for this research was case studies. Eight exemplar design elements within three case studies were investigated to explore details of evidence use practices; practices of using performance and prescriptive specifications; and impact of project unique contextual circumstances for EBD process and how design practitioners reflect on these circumstances. Results of this research revealed that EBD needs to be supported by both externally published research evidence and through internally generated evidence. It was also identified that EBD could be significantly facilitated through research- evidence informed other generic design evidence sources. Healthcare design SGaTs provides a promising prospect to facilitate EBD. Performance specification driven healthcare design SGaTs supplemented by prescriptive specifications to define design outputs and design inputs could improve effective use of evidence-informed SGaTs. These results were incorporated into a framework to guide development of healthcare design SGaTs. Finally, by exploring how projects unique contextual circumstances impact EBD processes and how practitioners reflect on these circumstances, this research identified the need for procedural guidance for designers to guide evidence acquisition, evidence application and new evidence generation.

Present urban acute NHS hospitals are rigid architectural structures composed of spatial and medical planning requirements that are underpinned by complex inter-related relationships. One assumed relationship is medical technology’s affect upon hospital space. There’s limited research exploring the relationship between NHS hospital space and medical technologies. Furthermore, little is known about the implications of emerging technologies (ETs) on future urban acute NHS hospital space. This study investigates the link between hospital space and medical technology to visualise the spatial consequences of incorporating anticipated medical ETs into future urban acute NHS hospitals. A unique single futures prospective methodology is adopted with a mixed methods approach. This includes historical research, a quantitative investigation of four London case studies and a literature exploration of three medical ETs (biotechnology, robotics and cyborgization). Primary data generated from this study forms the basis for creating scenarios of future urban acute hospital environments. Findings reveal that medical technologies impact directly on hospital space, thus, confirming the existence of a link between hospital space and medical technologies. Results also reveal that even without nanotechnology progression, medical technologies decrease in equipment size during the course of their development. This trend contradicts recent medical planning practice which ‘super-sizes’ high-spec hospital rooms (see Chapter 3). Additionally, a campus-styled hospital typology is determined as the preferred flexible design solution for creating sustainable 21st century urban acute NHS hospitals. Findings lead to recommendations that guide medical planners with the future-proofing of acute hospital space by providing insight and alternative medical planning solutions that incorporate medical ETs into future urban acute NHS hospitals.

The importance of the historic built environment to local communities and its ability to foster a sense of place is an issue at the heart of current heritage impact research. This thesis is primarily concerned with how public monuments, as a focus for the localisation of memories and narratives, can contribute to the development of social capital, sense of place, and a sense of community identity.

A very economical way of reducing the operational energy consumed by large commercial buildings such as an airport terminal is the automatic control of its active energy systems. Such control can adjust the indoor environment systems setpoints to satisfy comfort during occupancy or when unoccupied, initiate energy conservation setpoints and if necessary, shut down part of the building systems. Adjusting energy control setpoints manually in large commercial buildings can be a nightmare for facility managers. Incidentally for such buildings, occupancy based control strategies are not achieved through the use of conventional controllers alone. This research, therefore, investigated the potential of using a high-level control system in airport terminal building. The study presents the evolution of a novel fuzzy rule-based supervisory controller, which intelligently establishes comfort setpoints based on flow of passenger through the airport as well as variable external environmental conditions. The inputs to the supervisory controller include: the time schedule of the arriving and departing passenger planes; the expected number of passengers; zone daylight illuminance levels; and external temperature. The outputs from the supervisory controller are the low-level controllers internal setpoint profile for thermal comfort, visual comfort and indoor air quality. Specifically, this thesis makes contribution to knowledge in the following ways: It utilised artificial intelligence to develop a novel fuzzy rule-based, energy-saving supervisory controller that is able to establish acceptable indoor environmental quality for airport terminals based on occupancy schedules and ambient conditions. It presents a unique methodology of designing a supervisory controller using expert knowledge of an airport s indoor environment systems through MATLAB/Simulink platform with the controller s performance evaluated in both MATLAB and EnergyPlus simulation engine. Using energy conservation strategies (setbacks and switch-offs), the pro-posed supervisory control system was shown to be capable of reducing the energy consumed in the Manchester Airport terminal building by up to 40-50% in winter and by 21-27% in summer. It demonstrates that if a 45 minutes passenger processing time is aimed for instead of the 60 minutes standard time suggested by ICAO, energy consumption is significantly reduced (with less carbon emission) in winter particularly. The potential of the fuzzy rule-based supervisory controller to optimise comfort with minimal energy based on variation in occupancy and external conditions was demonstrated through this research. The systematic approach adopted, including the use of artificial intelligence to design supervisory controllers, can be extended to other large buildings which have variable but predictable occupancy patterns.

The biological need for lighting by an individual differs from the merely visual purpose, such as viewing objects and doing work or movement. Lack of adequate daylight for biological stimulation can lead to health problems, for e.g. imbalanced circadian rhythm. The importance of daylight is vital for hospital patients who are mostly physically and/or psychologically stressed. As, many patients stay indoors for 24 hours, they might be vulnerable to the lack of daylight which is necessary for health reasons. Hence, for hospital patients, daylight can be a strong therapeutic environmental design element to ensure good health and accelerate clinical recovery. The complex relationship between daylight environment and individuals responses are not fully understood. Controversy results that are debated by the previous researchers, has made the implementation of daylighting strategies in the architectural design of hospital in-patient rooms critical, mainly for therapeutic purpose. Strong evidence needs to be established that can build confidence to both architects and policy makers to use daylight for therapeutic purpose and integration of therapeutic effect of daylight to in-patient room architecture is necessary as well. This thesis provides information to architects (with examples) for incorporation of therapeutic effect of daylight in the design of in-patient rooms to reduce patient length of stay (LoS) in hospitals. A triangulation research method was applied in this work, where theories were developed qualitatively and tested quantitatively. Literature review was carried out to establish the potential effect of daylight on patient health. Retrospective field investigations were conducted to establish the quantitative relationship between daylight intensity and patient LoS inside in-patient rooms by developing Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) models under a general hospital environment. Using the daylighting goal to enhance therapeutic benefit for hospital patients, referred from literature and verified from field investigation data, a daylight design concept (sky window configurations) was developed and evaluated by prospective simulation study, and found better compared to traditional standard hospital window configurations, in order to enhance therapeutic benefit for hospital patients. A dynamic annual Climate-Based Daylight Modelling (CBDM) method that uses RADIANCE (backward) raytracer combined with a daylight coefficient approach considering Perez all weather sky luminance model (i.e. DAYSIM), was used for simulation analysis. This thesis develops strategies for architects to incorporate therapeutic effect of daylight in the architectural design of hospital in-patient rooms, including guidelines to support architectural decisions in case of conflicting situations, and to identify the range of daylight intensities within which patient LoS is expected to be reduced. The strategies also consider the ultraviolet radiation (UVR) protections and discuss the challenges of climate change for daylight researchers for the incorporation of therapeutic effect of daylight in the design of hospital in-patient rooms. The thesis provides a contribution to knowledge by establishing strong evidence of quantitative relationship between daylight and LoS, and by presenting new architectural forms for hospital in-patient room design as one of the possible ways to incorporate therapeutic effect of daylight in the design of hospital in-patient rooms effectively. It is expected that the research will encourage and help architects and policy makers to incorporate therapeutic effect of daylight in the design of hospital in-patient rooms, efficiently.

My interest in this particular subject, involving the analysis of design and architectural proposals for the Olympic city, derives from an earlier MPhil study, completed in 2001 (see section 3.1.2). My PhD research gave me the chance to further my investigation in this subject and focus on the role of Olympic design and architecture and the analysis of the material that describes the aesthetic character and language of host cities. By writing this thesis, I have connected, the Olympic city subject with critical theory involving issues of modern cities’ changing urban, social and cultural identities, reflected in their represented image, and I have also used methods of visual analysis. Within the course of the last ten years of my research in this field, I realised that there is a research gap in the investigation of the visual identity of different Olympic cities. This research gap consists of a lack of research that attempts a critical review of the role of Olympic architecture and design since the first Summer Olympic Games in Athens 1896 and also a lack of examination and critical analysis of the visual (and descriptive) material available in the Olympic cities’ archives. More specifically, this analysis involves questions about: - the production of a ‘visual identity’ (i.e. information about the producer of this identity, the design criteria and influences, such as technological and ideological); - the relationship of this identity with the surrounding urban, social and cultural environment: ‘what knowledge is being deployed and whose knowledge is excluded from this representation’ (Rose, 2007, p.259); 10 - the changes in how this identity is communicated and perceived (changes in the audience, in the perception of the event as a spectacle, in media and in the means of communication involved). My research journey, from the gathering of the necessary material to the writing up of this thesis, has involved a historical review of archives from different sources (libraries, organising committees and the press). It has also involved a review of theories that facilitated the interpretation of the Olympic city development as a visual identity, placed within a historical and sociocultural context. Methodologically, therefore, this study is a synthesis based on both the gathering of secondary data and also critical theory on art, design and architecture and on cities’ urban and social development. The work of the following researchers has been especially useful in exploring many of the thesis’ arguments: theorists such as Walter Benjamin and Ernst Bloch who are concerned with the modern city development; David Harvey, Fredric Jameson, Jean Baudrillard and Zygmunt Bauman, who examine the transformations in twentieth century social and cultural conditions (modernism and postmodernism); and also Sharon Zukin, Kevin Robins, and Anna Klingmann, who examine the social and cultural transformations in contemporary urban development. In this study, I also focus on the idea of transition and, therefore, on Olympic city examples that have made an immense effort to create a visual identity or alter the ways that people visually experienced them. I have been particularly interested in case studies that, with their design and architectural ideas and the ways they visually communicated the identity of a place, contributed to the transition of the Olympic city in its development as a visual identity. I suggest that, in addition to the examination of the Olympic city development as an urban plan (changing in size and scale and engaging with new technologies) and also as an international event (emerging to a mega-event), there is another type of development in Olympic design and architecture that is worth exploring, that of the Olympic city as a visual identity. 11 The original ideas in this thesis have to do with the development of the Olympic city as a visual identity and, therefore, with: - the analysis of visual material (photographs, maps, plans, pictures from the press and posters) and written material (from the Official Olympic reviews, the press, books, letters and speeches) having to do with Olympic cities since the Summer Olympic Games in Athens 1896. - the analysis of this material by interpreting the characteristics (design criteria, and priorities, who takes decisions and who is the image maker) behind each Olympic city’s design and architecture proposals. This analysis considers the promoted urban, social and cultural profile of the host city, but also considers any alternative (different from the represented) urban, social and cultural identity of the host city. - the selection of examples from the Olympic cities' visual identities that best represent the Olympic city as a transition from the modern to the postmodern era, based on characteristics from these visual identities that have faded, altered or been abolished and also characteristics that have been emphasised and promoted. Many of these characteristics changed the contemporary shape and represented profile not only of Olympic cities but also of cities in general. - the critical analysis of the role of design and architecture in the representation of an Olympic city, reflected in the characteristics of its visual identity.

In this thesis, I analyse the socio-cultural and imaginative spaces of the Globe and the Blackfriars through an examination of the repertory of new plays written for performance in both playhouses. Developing early modern drama scholarship which uses spatial theories, r provide a case study of two venues, focussing on the interactive relationship between repertory and early modern theatre space. I argue that companies responded to the socio-cultural and material qualities of their theatre, but also produced spatial meanings through their repertories. My focus is on the Globe and the Blackfriars because I wish to assess the unique position of the King's Men in 1609 when the company began performing at two playhouses. In summer they performed at the Globe, an amphitheatre on the South Bank of the Thames and, in the winter, at the Blackfriars, an indoor playhouse near the City of London. Before 1609, the Globe was the only venue at which the King's Men performed regularly. A company of boy actors, the Children of the Queen's Revels, occupied the Blackfriars from 1600 until 1608. I begin this thesis by arguing that the boy company at the Blackfriars and the adult company at the Globe produced different spatial meanings through their repertories at both playhouses from 1599 to 1609. ] then divide the analysis of these meanings into chapters addressing what I have called 'social', 'urban', 'playing' and 'haunted' space in order to demonstrate that the King's Men's pO/;t-1609 repertory emerged from the Children of the Queen's Revels' production of space at the Blackfriars, and that the adult company's plays developed the spatial meanings created by the boy company at the indoor playhouse before 1609. I conclude by assessing 'authentic' staging and questions of spatial memory at the reconstructed Globe in light of my claims about the first Globe and the Blackfriars.

From the 1880s, a new type of designed green space appeared in the industrial landscape in England and the USA - the factory pleasure garden or park. At the same time, industrialists began to enhance their office and factory buildings with landscaping and planting, and some opened allotment gardens for the children of factory workers. The making of gardens and parks around or near office and factory buildings, designed by professionals, was driven by belief in the value of gardens and parks to recruitment and retention of staff, to industrial welfare, and to advertising, corporate identity and public relations. The thesis will show how industrialists appropriated the historical, cultural and metaphorical meanings of gardens in a bid to redefine industry as progressive and responsible and to shift the image of factory labour from unhealthy and exploitative to healthy, caring, respectable and sociable. The thesis will argue that companies employed landscape professionals to contribute to a positive image of industry and industrial development in the suburban or rural landscape, and to harmonise industry and nature. It will show how the factory gardens and parks supported numerous and varied opportunities for outdoor recreation that in some districts would not have been so readily accessible to working people, particularly to women and young people. The thesis will show how companies exploited the social and cultural capital of gardens and recreation space through photography, illustration and film for promotional purposes. It will suggest that although the sporting and other outdoor recreational opportunities at factories were likely to be beneficial to many, the greater value to companies of factory pleasure gardens was in advertising and public relations. The thesis will build on existing research that highlights the valuable contribution of industry to sports and recreation provision in this period. It will also suggest that industry had more influence on gardens and gardening than is currently understood.

The aim of this thesis is to investigate the prediction of summer over-heating in naturally ventilated office buildings by dynamic thermal modelling. Three case study buildings were modelled using the commercial, TAS dynamic thermal modelling software and their internal air temperature levels monitored. To find the optimum level of modelling complexity that compared with the physically monitored data, dynamic thermal models were altered from an initial 'Basic' model through to a very complex modelling set-up. From the changes in internal temperature prediction, created by varying the complexity of the model set-up (allowing for variations in the modelling strategy applied and the estimates/data applied by necessity in the model e.g. weather file information, blinds usage etc.) the relative effects upon the building design of these results can be assessed. This assessment was conducted by viewing the results against current UK over-heating guidelines used in the building design industry and/or by building users. Further, where these current guidelines proved of little usability for the cross-comparison of the actual monitored summer data and the realistic modelling set-up decisions, a new overheating guideline criteria was proposed.

Arrangements are also considered for providing other ways of deploying in situ natural turfgrass in multi-use stadia. These methods are not dependent on long-term advantageous environmental conditions. Some of these arrangements can also provide for the exchange of turfgrass playing surfaces for those are hard wearing. The details of these arrangements are complemented by case studies. Implementing some of these other arrangements may negate the need to incorporate strict environmental standards in stadia design

This thesis concerns Parliament Square in the City of Westminster, London. It is situated to the west of the Houses of Parliament (or New Palace at Westminster) and to the north of St. Margaret’s Church and Westminster Abbey. This urban space was first cleared at the start of the nineteenth-century and became a “square” in the 1860s according to designs by Edward Middleton Barry (1830-80). It was replanned by George Grey Wornum (1888-1957) in association with the Festival of Britain (1951). In 1998 Norman Foster and Partners drew up an (as yet) unrealised scheme to pedestrianise the south side closest to the Abbey. From the outset it was intended to erect statues of statesmen (sic) in this locale. The text examines processes of commissioning, execution, inauguration and reaction to memorials in this vicinity. These include: George Canning (Richard Westmacott, 1832), Richard I (Carlo Marochetti, 1851-66), Sir Robert Peel (Marochetti, 1853-67; Matthew Noble, 1876), Thomas Fowell Buxton (Samuel Sanders Teulon, 1865), fourteenth Earl of Derby (Matthew Noble, 1874), third Viscount Palmerston (Thomas Woolner, 1876), Benjamin Disraeli (Mario Raggi, 1883), Oliver Cromwell (William Hamo Thornycroft, 1899), Abraham Lincoln (Augustus Saint-Gaudens, 1887/1920), Emmeline Pankhurst (Arthur George Walker, 1930), Jan Christian Smuts (Jacob Epstein, 1956) and Winston Churchill (Ivor Roberts-Jones, 1973) as well as possible future commemorations to David Lloyd George and Margaret Thatcher. Parliament Square has consistently been characterised as a “sacred”, memory-laden site. It is analogous to a public park. In the thesis it is envisioned as a ‘stage at the theatre of state’ and dramatic moments of authorized celebration and unsanctioned behaviour are narrated throughout the text. Occasions of official rite and ritual are accordingly paralleled by irreverent irruptions, concluding with the ‘Reclaim the Streets’ protests of 1 May 2000.

Previous studies on acoustic requirements for performers of classical music proved that early reflections were of critical importance for good ensemble conditions. However, strong early reflections may produce an unpleasant tone quality. Diffusers are sometimes used to reduce the negative effects caused by large specularly reflecting surfaces. The aim of the research project is to better understand what happens when diffusers are applied to the enclosure walls of a stage in a concert hall. Two aspects are examined: the changes produced to the sound field measured on the orchestra platform, and the manner in which musicians perceive diffuse early reflections in comparison with specular early reflections. Results of objective measurements show that the most noticeable property of diffusers on the early sound field is the smoothing of the impulse response. Diffusers attenuate strong early reflections. Besides, diffusers give a better sound energy distribution by providing reflections outside the specular sector: the standard deviation of several acoustic parameters is somewhat smaller with diffusers. It was found that diffusers do not eliminate comb filter effects and that they do not have a great influence on EEL, ST and clarity. The subjective aspect resulting in the greatest consensus among the subjects is the following. The overall tone quality is improved by diffusers. The overall sound quality is influenced by the amplitude of early reflections and by the reception angle of the reflections. Diffusers may also affect articulation, clarity, self and mutual hearing, but to a minor extent. Musicians' requirements regarding the fine structure of early reflections differ according to the size of the ensemble who is performing, the room volume, the power and directivity of the instruments played, and the type of music (or desired tone quality).

The study reaches an understanding of the boundaries that a society can set, for the provision of comfort conditions using energy efficient building skins in prisons. The aim is to establish the role of facade design in attaining a possible balance between the provision of a humane environment for inmates that would help in rehabilitation efforts on one hand, and the penal system on the other. This study examines the factors that affect the balance between the costs to society of such comfort in energy terms, against rehabilitation. The study provides guidelines to establish this balance in design of prison facades in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Emphasis will be on variables that have impact on the design and configurations of building skin. In Western societies, the reform policy in the 18th century produced a new kind of architecture associated with it at that period (Evans, 1982). Prison architecture was part of the punishment regime. The effects of the indoor environment on the inmates and their physical and psychological comfort were not considered (Peters, 1995). The main role of the buildings was to operate as a punishment symbol not only to the offenders, but also to put fear into everyone passing by them (UNSDRI, 1975). The special configuration of the prison buildings of the 18`h century was therefore manifested in the patterns of the indoor space as well as the facade design (Pearce, 1995). Modern concepts of penal theories emphasise the rehabilitation of the prisoners (Lenci, 1977). It is believed that the contemporary institutions should focus more on the effect of the building environment on the individual (Christopher, 1990). Consequently, the contemporary design of prison buildings is to foster a more positive environment. This is mediated by the creation of an environment that is proactive rather than reactive (Spens, 1994). A positive and healthy environment is essential for the inmates' rehabilitation. In order to achieve this goal, comfort is a main concern. The question of comfort in prisons is complex. Large numbers of quantitative and qualitative variables have been identified. This study traces and investigates the development of penal theories, in order to identify the importance of such variables for rehabilitation of inmates. A historical review was essential to fully understand the forces that shaped the development of prisons. The review includes development of prisons in different societies and discusses the penal systems in those societies. The analysis of the historical development of prison buildings also revealed the importance of facade features that reflected the penal theories of certain times and of certain societies. The thesis takes prisons in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) as a case study. The UAE prisons have moved through different phases of development. The new policy of the Ministry of Interior emphasises the need for rehabilitation and improving the conditions of the inmates. A prototype design has been developed as a model for all prisons in Abu Dhabi. The new design, with its improved environmental conditions, has significant implications on energy consumption with the increase in area per inmate and the introduction of air-conditioning. Emphasis on comfort as one of the main design factors will affect the layout of prisons, the design of the building skin, and the services provided. The proposed prototype is simulated using thermal simulation modelling software in order to understand the thermal performance of the facades. Alternative scenarios, based on prison and design theories and new facade technologies, are developed and compared to the proposed prototype. The thesis concludes with a discussion on the role of facade design on the sustainability of prison buildings taking into account the social, environmental and technical related variables. The thesis argues that the phrase sustainable facade design has always referred to the introduction of appropriate facade configuration in order to achieve energy efficiency. In prison buildings, however, a typology driven by cultural values and social theories, socioeconomic factors have great impacts on the sustainable design of prisons' facades. Hence, achieving sustainable prison facade design is conditioned by coupling social aspects of prison buildings with technical energy saving measures.