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Purpose: This study examined the effect of manipulating advanced kinematic information about opponents' pitching movement on ball speed prediction, ball speed perception, and impact timing errors under strict temporal constraints (i.e., a softball game). Method: Three experiments were conducted using visual stimuli consisting of varied kinematic information—different pitching movements with the same ball trajectory. In Experiment 1, participants observed the pitching movement of the visual stimuli and predicted pitched ball speed as a two-interval forced choice discrimination task (2IFC). In Experiment 2, participants observed both the pitching movement and ball trajectory, and evaluated the pitched ball speed as a 2IFC. In Experiments 3a and 3b, they tried to swing against the pitched ball presented on the screen as accurately as possible with regard to timing. Results: Batters tended to predict the ball was moving faster when the pitching movement was faster (Experiment 1). Incorrectly predicting the ball speed due to the difference in advanced kinematic information also biased batters' perception of the speed (Experiment 2), and this biased prediction yielded congruent impact timing (Experiment 3a). The impact timing error of naive participants also was affected by kinematic information (Experiment 3b). Conclusion: Limitations of this study (representative task design, sample size, and experimental procedures) notwithstanding, results indicate that, under strict temporal constraints, batters' perceptions and actions are sensitive to advanced kinematic information, which could lead to biased perceptions and actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning postulates that autonomy support (AS), enhanced expectancies (EE), and an external focus of attention (EF) facilitate improved motor learning and performance. However, its applicability to elite-level throwing athletes has not been investigated by previous literature. The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the successive implementation of AS, EE, and EF factors on overhand throwing performance in elite collegiate softball athletes (14.44 ± 2.75 years of softball experience). The secondary purpose was to determine whether self-efficacy beliefs would be augmented by factor manipulation. Twenty-four participants threw softballs at a bullseye target during five blocks. The Baseline test (Block 1) was used to subsequently assign participants to either the OPTIMAL or control group. Three middle blocks (Block 2 to 4) followed with successive factor implementation for the OPTIMAL group and without instruction for the control group. The final block (Block 5) served as the Transfer test, at which time throwing distance was increased. During Blocks 2 to 4, the OPTIMAL group was given the choice between softballs (AS), a liberal definition of successful throwing performance (EE), and instructed to focus on the bullseye (EF). Self-efficacy beliefs were assessed after applying the factors and before all blocks. There were no significant differences between the groups in throwing accuracy or self-efficacy scores across all blocks. The results suggest that the OPTIMAL theory does not augment skilled throwing performance or alter self-efficacy in elite softball throwing, potentially attributed to a natural adoption of EF and previously high self-efficacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to further examine the utility of Mitchell, Holtom, Lee, Sablynski, and Erez's (2001) job embeddedness construct. The authors tested a revised version of their original multi-item scale, as well as a new global-item measure. Data were gathered from two independent samples (intercollegiate softball coaches,  N = 214, and athletic department employees,  N = 189). Results from both studies provide the strongest support for the global-item measure. The convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity of the measure was established. Results demonstrate the efficacy of the job embeddedness construct in explaining why people choose to stay in their organizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the most important skills in softball is throwing. Various methods of training were tested to determine an alternative approach that can improve throwing ball velocity. Combined training is one method that recently gained attention among sports practitioners. However, most training focuses only on the major muscles and neglects supporting muscles such as handgrip and trunk rotation muscles that are also critical in the execution of throwing. Therefore, this study seeks to determine the effect of handgrip, trunk rotation, and combination of handgrip and trunk rotation training on the throwing ball velocity of collegiate female softball players. A total of 72 collegiate female softball players were assigned into 4 strength training groups namely handgrip (HG), trunk rotation (TR), combination (HG&TR) group (CB) and control group (CG). All participants had undergone a training program, 3 days per week for 6 weeks. All groups were instructed to perform the same basic strength training program (training on major muscles) with different additional strength training (handgrip strength or trunk rotation strength) according to the group's assigned exercises. Participants were assessed on their throwing ball velocity before the intervention (pretest) and after the 6-week training program (posttest). After 6 weeks of training, the result showed that throwing ball velocity significantly increased in the HG (1.45 m/s), TR (1.62 m/s), CB (2.08 m/s) and CG (0.93 m/s) groups. The post-hoc test indicated that all groups were significantly different compared to each other except the comparison between HG and TR groups. This study also demonstrated that the combination training (CB) approach was more effective in improving throwing ball velocity compared to a single mode approach (HG and TR). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background:Monitoring pitch count is standard practice in minor league baseball but not in softball because of the perception that fast-pitch softball pitching is a less stressful motion.Purpose:To examine muscle fatigue after fast-pitch softball performances to provide an assessment of performance demand.Study Design:Descriptive laboratory study.Methods:Bilateral strength measurements (handheld dynamometer) were made on 19 female softball pitchers (mean age [±SD], 15.2 ± 1.2 years) before and after pitching a game (mean number of pitches, 99 ± 21; mean innings pitched, 5 ± 1). A total of 20 tests were performed on the dominant and nondominant sides: forearm (grip, wrist flexion/extension, pronation/supination, elbow flexion/extension), shoulder (flexion, abduction/adduction, external/internal rotation, empty can test), scapula (middle/lower trapezius, rhomboid), and hip (hip flexion/extension, abduction/adduction). Fatigue (percentage strength loss) was categorized based on bilateral versus unilateral presentation using paired t tests: bilateral symmetric (significant on dominant and nondominant and not different between sides), bilateral asymmetric (significant on dominant and nondominant but significantly greater on dominant), unilateral asymmetric (significant on dominant only and significantly greater than nondominant), or unilateral equivocal (significant on dominant only but not different from nondominant).Results:Bilateral symmetric fatigue was evident for all hip (dominant, 19.3%; nondominant, 15.2%) and scapular tests (dominant, 19.2%; nondominant, 19.3%). In general, shoulder tests exhibited bilateral asymmetric fatigue (dominant, 16.9%; nondominant, 11.6%). Forearm tests were more variable, with bilateral symmetric fatigue in the elbow flexors (dominant, 22.5%; nondominant, 19.2%), and wrist flexors (dominant, 21.6%; nondominant, 19.0%), bilateral asymmetric fatigue in the supinators (dominant, 21.8%; nondominant, 15.5%), unilateral asymmetric fatigue in the elbow extensors (dominant, 22.1%; nondominant, 11.3%), and unilateral equivocal fatigue in the pronators (dominant, 18.8%; nondominant, 15.2%) and grip (dominant, 11.4%; nondominant, 6.6%). The mean (±SD) pitch velocity was 49 ± 4 mph, with a small loss of velocity from the first to last inning pitched (3.4% ± 5.0%, P < .01).Conclusion:Fast-pitch softball pitching resulted in profound bilateral fatigue in the hip and scapular muscles, with more selective fatigue in the shoulder and arm muscles.Clinical Relevance:These findings emphasize the importance of strength in the proximal musculature to provide a stable platform for the arm to propel the ball. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Baseball and softball pitch types are distinguished by the path and speed of the ball which, in turn, are determined by the angular velocity of the ball and the velocity of the ball center at the instant of release from the pitcher's hand. While radar guns and video-based motion capture (mocap) resolve ball speed, they provide little information about how the angular velocity of the ball and the velocity of the ball center develop and change during the throwing motion. Moreover, mocap requires measurements in a controlled lab environment and by a skilled technician. This study addresses these shortcomings by introducing a highly miniaturized, wireless inertial measurement unit (IMU) that is embedded in both baseballs and softballs. The resulting ?ball-embedded? sensor resolves ball dynamics right on the field of play. Experimental results from ten pitches, five thrown by one softball pitcher and five by one baseball pitcher, demonstrate that this sensor technology can deduce the magnitude and direction of the ball's velocity at release to within 4.6% of measurements made using standard mocap. Moreover, the IMU directly measures the angular velocity of the ball, which further enables the analysis of different pitch types. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study that examined the muscle activation patterns of three upper- and two lower-extremity muscles during the windmill pitching motion of women's fast-pitch softball. Data are presented on the proportion of maximum isometric contraction reached by the biceps, triceps, rhomboids, gluteus maximus, and medius muscles.

The article presents the results of a study which investigated the kinematics involved in the windmill softball pitch, as performed by girls. An overview of related previous research is provided, along with details of the experimental protocol. It was found that more advanced players used more of the kinetic chain effectively, including the torso, shoulder, and the entire arm.

Background: Windmill pitching produces high forces and torques at the shoulder and elbow, making the biceps labrum complex susceptible to overuse injury. Little is known about the muscle firing patterns during a windmill pitch. Hypothesis: Biceps muscle activity is greater during a windmill pitch than during an overhand throw. Study Design: Descriptive laboratory study. Methods: Seven female windmill pitchers underwent motion analysis and surface electromyography evaluation of their biceps muscles during windmill and overhand throwing. Marker motion analysis, muscle activity, and ball release were captured simultaneously. Surface electromyography trials were collected and related to the athletes' phases of pitching and throwing, identified based on predefined softball and baseball pitching mechanics. Results: Throws were of similar velocity (24 m/s, 53 mph, P = .71), but peak biceps brachii muscle activation during the windmill pitch was significantly greater than during the overhand throw when normalized (38% vs 19% manual muscle test, P = .02). The highest muscle activity occurred at the 9-o'clock phase of the windmill pitch, during which the biceps brachii undergoes eccentric contraction. In the overhand throw, the highest level of biceps activity occurred during arm cocking. Conclusion: In female athletes, biceps brachii activity during the windmill pitch is higher than during an overhand throw and is most active during the 9-o'clock and follow-through phases of the pitch. Clinical Relevance: Repetitive eccentric biceps contractions may help explain the high incidence of anterior shoulder pain clinically observed in elite windmill pitchers. Injury prevention and treatment mechanisms should focus on the phases with the highest muscle activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To review 16 years of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) injury surveillance data for women's softball and to identify potential areas for injury prevention initiatives. Background: The NCAA Injury Surveillance System has tracked injuries in all divisions of NCAA softball from the 1988-1989 to the 2003-2004 seasons. This report describes what was found and why the findings are important for the safety, enhancement, and continued growth of the sport. Main Results: Across all divisions, preseason practice injury rates were more than double the regular-season practice injury rates (3.65 versus 1.68 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures, rate ratio = 2.2, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.0, 2.4, P < .01 ). The rate of injury in a game was 1.6 times that in a practice (4.30 versus 2.67 injuries per 1000 athlete-exposures, rate ratio = 1.6, 95% CI = 1.5, 1.7). A total of 51.2% of game injuries resulted from "other-contact" mechanisms, whereas 55% of practice injuries resulted from noncontact mechanisms. In games, ankle ligament sprains and knee internal derangements accounted for 19% of injuries. Twenty-three percent of all game injuries were due to sliding, most of which were ankle sprains. In practices, ankle ligament sprains, quadriceps and hamstring strains, shoulder strains and tendinitis, knee internal derangements, and lower back strains (combined) accounted for 38% of injuries. Recommendations: Ankle ligament sprains, knee internal derangements, sliding injuries, and overuse shoulder and low back injuries were among the most common conditions in NCAA women's softball. Preventive efforts should focus on sliding technique regardless of skill level, potential equipment changes, neuromuscular training programs, position-specific throwing programs, and mechanisms of low back injury. Further research is needed on the development and effects of these preventive efforts, as well as in the area of windmill-pitching biomechanics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whilst the sport of softball has achieved worldwide popularity over the last 100 years, a consideration of the scientific principles underpinning softball is in its infancy. It is clear that the various motor skills associated with softball, such as pitching, batting and fielding, place considerable perceptual and physical demands upon players. Each of these skill categories are examined in more detail by reviewing the biomechanical principles associated with skilled performance. For pitching, a certain amount of information can be gleaned from baseball research; however, the underarm technique required by softball places the highest loads on the arm and shoulder during the accelerative, downward phase of the swing. Kinematic analyses of the bat swing suggest that elite batters have approximately 200ms to decide whether to swing, and approximately the same duration to complete the swing (resulting in reported bat speeds of up to 40 m/sec). The research conducted on fielding has been limited to a consideration of throwing styles adopted in games. A variety of throwing techniques are adopted in the course of a typical game but elite players commonly adopt a sidearm technique when returning to base as quickly as possible. Data obtained from the National Athletic Training Association indicate a similar level of injury incidence in softball as in baseball. Approximately 17% of injuries are experienced by the pitcher and approximately 25% of all injuries are located in the forearm/wrist/hand joint segments. Sports science and sports medicine research have the potential to contribute significantly to performance enhancement and injury prevention in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background; A significant number of time-loss injuries to the upper extremity in elite windmill softball pitchers has been documented. The number of outings and pitches thrown in 1 week for a softball pitcher is typically far in excess of those seen in baseball pitchers. Shoulder stress in professional baseball pitching has been reported to be high and has been linked to pitching injuries. Shoulder distraction has not been studied in an elite softball pitching population. Hypothesis; The stresses on the throwing shoulder of elite windmill pitchers are similar to those found for professional baseball pitchers. Study Design: Descriptive laboratory study. Methods: Three-dimensional, high-speed (120 Hz) video data were collected on rise balls from 24 elite softball pitchers during the 1996 Olympic Games. Kinematic parameters related to pitching mechanics and resultant kinetics on the throwing shoulder were calculated. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to relate shoulder stress and pitching mechanics. Results: Shoulder distraction stress averaged 80% of body weight for the Olympic pitchers. Sixty-nine percent of the variability in shoulder distraction can be explained by a combination of 7 parameters related to pitching mechanics. Conclusion: Excessive distraction stress at the throwing shoulder is similar to that found in baseball pitchers, which suggests that windmill softball pitchers are at risk for overuse injuries. Normative information regarding upper extremity kinematics and kinetics for elite softball pitchers has been established. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Limited research attention has been paid to the potentially harmful windmill softball pitch. No information is available regarding lower extremity kinetics in softball pitching. Hypothesis: The stresses on the throwing arm of youth windmill pitchers are clinically significant and similar to those found for college softball pitchers. Study Design: Descriptive laboratory study. Methods: Three-dimensional, high-speed (240-Hz) video and stride foot force plate (1200 Hz) data were collected on fastballs from 53 youth softball pitchers. Kinematic parameters related to pitching mechanics and resultant kinetics on the throwing-arm elbow and shoulder joints were calculated. Kinetic parameters were compared to those reported for baseball pitchers. Results: Elbow and shoulder joint loads were similar to those found for baseball pitchers and college softball pitchers. Shoulder distraction stress averaged 94% body weight for the youth pitchers. Stride foot ground reaction force patterns were not similar to those reported for baseball pitchers. Vertical and braking force components under the stride foot were in excess of body weight. Conclusions: Excessive distraction stress and joint torques at the throwing-arm elbow and shoulder are similar to those found in baseball pitchers, which suggests that windmill softball pitchers are at risk for overuse injuries. Normative information regarding upper and lower extremity kinematics and kinetics for 12- to 19-year-old softball pitchers has been established. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents a study on the shoulder muscles activities during the windmill fast-pitch softball throw. Importance of windmill patterns in diagnosis and treatment of shoulder injuries among pitchers; Materials and methods used in the study; Results and discussions.

Objectives: To investigate safely risks in slowpitch softball by conducting laboratory and experimental studies on the performance of high tech softball bats with polyurethane softballs. To compare the results with the recommended safely standards. Methods: ASTM standard compression testing of seven softball models was conducted. Using these seven softball models, bat/ball impact testing was performed using seven adult male softball players and six high tech softball bat models to determine mean batted ball speeds. Over 500 bat/ball impact measurements were recorded and analysed. Available pitcher reaction time was calculated from the mean baited ball speed measurements. Results: According to the United States Specially Sports Association and the Amateur Softball Association, the maximum initial batted ball speed should be 137.2 km/h, which corresponds to a minimum pitcher reaction time of 0.420 second. These experiments produced mean baited ball speeds of 134.0- 159.7 km/h, which correspond to available pitcher reaction times of 0.409-0.361 second. Conclusion: The use of high tech softball bats with polyurethane softballs can result in baited ball speeds that exceed the recommended safely limits, which correspond to decreased available pitcher reaction times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the report "Biceps Activity During Windmill Softball Pitching," by researcher I. L. Rojas and colleagues in the March 2009 issue of the "American Journal of Sports Medicine." Topics include an overview of the researchers' investigation of both college and professional softball players to discover the types of pitches that cause anterior shoulder pain, specifically the windmill pitch.