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One of 52 theoretical papers on school crime and its relation to poverty, this chapter deals with the intrinsic motivation that the systemic structure of a school provides for opportunities for both prosocial and antisocial behavior. On the basis of previous research, the authors propose that the state of enjoyment occurs when a person is challenged at a level matched by his or her level of skills. According to the model, the experience of meetable challenges requires the perception of a constrained set of possible actions, clearly defined goals, and opportunities for unambiguous feedback. Ideally, learning should involve systemic involvement in sequences of challenges internalized by students. However, evidence indicates that such involvement is rare and is often subverted by the school itself. In the absence of such opportunities, antisocial behavior provides an alternate framework of challenges for bored students. Disruption of classes, vandalism, and violence in schools are, in part, attempts of adolescents to obtain enjoyment in otherwise lifeless schools. Restructuring education in terms of intrinsic motivation would not only reduce school crime, but also accomplish the goal of teaching youth how to enjoy life in an affirmative way. (Author/MLF)

One of 52 theoretical papers on school crime and its relation to poverty, this chapter reports that there is a growing trend in this country to blame youth crime on parental overpermissiveness. Available data fail to support this and show that all types of crime, including school crime, develop within families and school systems emphasizing aversive and athoritarian discipline techniques. Also, racism and personal injustice are more common in an authoritarian atmosphere. Of all types of aversive behavior control, corporal punishment appears most apt to induce aggression. A theory relating delinquent agression to the severity of parental discipline is sketched out, and it is suggested that a national effort be made to discourage the use of corporal punishment as a socially acceptable child-rearing technique. Since corporal punishment tends to produce both fear and anger, its continued use in the school can only be counterproductive to the learning process. A joint effort should be made to train teachers in nonaversive but effective techniques of pupil control. In addition, individual teachers need the support of well-trained guidance personnel who are willing to enter homes and work with the behavioral problems at their source. (Author/MLF)

One of 52 theoretical papers on school crime and its relation to poverty, this chapter attempts to demonstrate that deviant behaviors in school are caused and patterned by the manner in which schools differentially constrain the ability of students legitimately to attain the goal of academic success. By applying a modified and extended version of Merton's model of deviance to an assessment of the available research on student deviancy, the authors show that the occurrence of deviance among students, in both overall rates and types of deviant responses made, is socially patterned within the social system of the school, reflecting the socioeconomic status, racial, and sexual attributes of the student body. (Author/MLF)

One of 52 theoretical papers on school crime and its relation to poverty, this chapter explores programs designed to prevent or to reduce student crime and violence in secondary schools that are based on the assumption that pupils are competent to make rational decisions and take rational actions, and programs that assume pupils are not competent. Program areas explored are organizational modification, curricular/instructional programs, security systems, and counseling services. Specific programs fitting into each category are discussed. The paper concludes that programs of many different kinds are needed to deal effectively with problems of crime and violence in schools. Although there was no striking difference in outcomes between programs that assume competence and those that do not, the author points out that this was not a research project but a cataloging of programs appearing in the literature. The author cautions that youths involved in such programs may be affected in unexpected ways as a result of program assumptions wholly unconsidered by educators and/or program planners. (Author/MLF)

One of 52 theoretical papers on school crime and its relation to poverty, this chapter focuses solely on changes in student crimes in the period from 1950 to 1975. A number of observations are made about student violence. First, assaults against teachers have increased sharply in the past 25 years in absolute numbers, but not in the percent of teachers assaulted. Further, "assault" is so loosely defined that no clear picture of changes in the intensity of assaults can be developed. Second, fires in schools represent the single most costly act students can perpetrate; costs from fires are increasing more rapidly than the value of all school property. Third, vandalism probably increased in this country up to the early 1970s, and has declined since that time in both cost and frequency, but may have increased in intensity. Fourth, estimates of the costs of crimes occurring in schools varies widely, depending on the group collecting the information and the methodology used for computing the figures. The paper concludes with discussions of probable future actions of pupils, of local schools, and of school security offices. (Author/MLF)

One of 52 theoretical papers on school crime and its relation to poverty, this chapter, by utilizing ethnographic data, develops an understanding of the interrelationships among administrative styles, deterrence, commitment, and disruption. The effect of change in administrative styles on the character of order and disruption in a desegregated southern high school is examined. The concern of this paper is primarily with control systems and their effects, and not with the incidence of misbehavior. The data were drawn from an ongoing ethnographic study geared to investigate the process of interracial schooling. Additional data are presented from an ethnography of another high school in a different southern city to facilitate the formulation of conclusions. The paper concludes that a highly representative governance system fosters commitment in the vast majority of school participants. The participants have a major role in making and revising the rules, and, thus, when caught violating them, they are hard pressed to question the legitimacy of those rules. (Author/MLF)

One of 52 theoretical papers on school crime and its relation to poverty, this chapter presents four moralization paradigms (psychoanalytic, social learning, humanistic, and cognitive-developmental) as explanatory hypotheses for the relationship between poverty and school crime. The paper takes the position that no one paradigm is sufficient to account completely for school crime. Each paradigm is useful in explaining the moral orientations found both within and between individuals involved in school crime. Recent work in moral education is presented under each of the paradigms as a source for the prevention and control of school crime. It is concluded that an awareness of the complexities involved in the moral orientations of youth is a necessary first step in the development of broad-based approaches to the prevention and control of school crime. (Author/MLF)

The role of reading retardation as a factor in juvenile delinquency was examined in a study which sought (1) to determine a correlation between retardation over a 5-year period and (2) to observe any changes which might have occurred in the relationship since a 1915 study. Boys committed to a St. Paul, Minnesota, boys' residential treatment center over a 5-year period from 1966 to 1971 were used as subjects. Interviews; intelligence, reading, arithmetic, and spelling tests; and personality inventories administered at the time of referral to the center provided data for analysis. The results indicated that reading grade levels of delinquents remained stable over the 5-year period and showed consistent retardation. Little change in the relationship between retardation and delinquency could be found since 1915. It was concluded that while retardation cannot be said to be a cause of delinquency, it is felt that remediation may be a factor in rehabilitating delinquents. Tables and references are included. (MS)

Procedures for early identification of delinquency-prone youth in Eau Claire County, Wisconsin, are described in this report of a 1961-1972 study designed to delineate the problems of aggressive and disruptive classroom behavior as related to delinquency. Data collection began in 1961, when each 3rd-, 6th-, and 9th-grade teacher in Eau Claire County, Wisconsin, was asked to nominate 2 boys and 2 girls whose behavior was persistently aggressive and 2 boys and 2 girls whose behavior was persistently socially acceptable and productive (n=1550). This sample was then used for 3 previous phases of investigation (as reported in ED 014 335, ED 019 153, and ED 020 812) and for the present study, Phase IV. The method of investigation for Phase IV consisted of obtaining test scores and grades for the original 3rd and 6th graders; obtaining rank in graduating class for the original 6th and 9th graders; completion of The Behavior Problems Checklist for 12th graders; completion of social adjustment ratings by teachers on 8 aspects of behavior for 12th graders and the graduates; and collection of data from police and sheriff departments, welfare agencies, the juvenile court, a mental health agency, and the health department. From these data, variables were isolated for use in predicting academic achievement, social adjustment, health and welfare, and law contact. In the report, statistical analyses in terms of these variables are presented in tabular form, and manuals are provided for use in predicting behavior in terms of the variables that were isolated. (PS)

PHYSICAL AND PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS WERE EXAMINED IN RELATION TO CLOTHING CHOICES IN AN EFFORT TO MORE FULLY UNDERSTAND THE REASONS BEHIND THE PERSONAL BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT PROBLEMS OF DELINQUENT GIRLS. AN EXPERIMENTAL GROUP OF 22 DELINQUENT GIRLS AND A CONTROL GROUP OF THE SAME NUMBER OF NONDELINQUENTS (MATCHED TO AGE, IQ, AND ECONOMIC AND ETHNIC BACKGROUND) WERE SET UP FOR COMPARISONS AMONG THE FOLLOWING MEASUREMENTS--(1) BODILY CONSTITUTION, (2) RORSCHACH FACTORS (BODY-IMAGE AND PERSONALITY), (3) PERCEPTUAL CHARACTERISTICS, AND (4) CLOTHING FABRIC AND DRESS STYLE PREFERENCES. COMPARATIVE DATA REVEALED THAT THE DELINQUENT GIRLS IN THIS STUDY DIFFERED FROM NONDELINQUENTS IN PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS (LARGER WEIGHT/HEIGHT AND BUST). IN ADDITION, THESE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS APPEARED TO BE (1) RELATED TO SEVERAL PERSONALITY VARIABLES AS MEASURED BY RORSCHACH TESTS AND (2) PROJECTED IN PREFERENCES FOR CLOTHING COLOR IN FABRIC CHOICE. THE INVESTIGATOR NOTED THAT DELINQUENT GIRLS APPEARED TO PREFER WARM COLORS, WEAK CONTRASTS, AND LARGE DESIGNS IN CHOOSING THEIR CLOTHING FABRIC, AND IMMODEST AND FEMININE STYLES OF DRESS. IN CONTRAST, NONDELINQUENTS PREFERRED COOL COLORS, STRONG CONTRASTS, AND SMALL DESIGNS, AND MODEST AND MORE MASCULINE DRESS STYLES. (JH)

AN EXAMINATION WAS MADE OF THE VARIOUS PATTERNS OF INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIOR OF YOUTHS WHICH DISTINGUISH DELINQUENTS FROM NONDELINQUENTS. THREE GROUPS WERE EMPLOYED IN THIS STUDY. GROUP ONE CONSISTED OF IDENTIFIED DELINQUENTS. GROUP TWO CONSISTED OF UNBEARABLE YOUNGSTERS AS DETERMINED BY THE TEACHER. GROUP THREE CONSISTED OF A MATCHED CONTROL GROUP. THE SUBJECTS WERE SELECTED FROM THE LOCAL JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS. THE RANGE OF DATA AND RESPONSES VARIED BETWEEN 135 TO 168 SUBJECTS. THE ACTIVITIES INDEX WAS ADMINISTERED TO ALL SUBJECTS. INFORMATION WAS ALSO OBTAINED FROM QUESTIONNAIRES SENT TO THE TEACHERS. INTERVIEWS WITH THE PARENTS, AND THE SUBJECTS'"LIFE CARDS." ANALYSES OF DATA WERE MADE USING CHI-SQUARE PROCEDURES. THE GENERAL FINDINGS SUGGESTED THAT DELINQUENT AND UNBEARABLE SUBJECTS WERE NOT THE SAME. ALSO THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE DELINQUENT AND THE PARENT INDICATED THE HOSTILITY WAS DIRECTED AGAINST THE ENTIRE SOCIETY AND NOT JUST THE SCHOOLS. FURTHER INVESTIGATION WAS SUGGESTED ON THE RESPONSE OF THE TEACHERS TO SUCH BEHAVIOR AND THE DIFFERENCES IN HANDLING THE DELINQUENT AND UNBEARABLE-TYPE STUDENTS. (RS)

A counseling program for delinquent teenagers was developed in 1969-70 to serve four public high schools in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The Liaison Teacher-Returnee Counselor Project was designed to provide continuous support to delinquent juveniles after their release from state institutions. Former teachers from the institutions and special counselors in the Milwaukee public schools helped to bridge the teenagers readjustment to the regular school system. The three main components of the project included prerelease activities, programming and orientation after release, and continued supportive counseling. In 1970-71, the project was expanded to include a summer program. Chapters of this case study concern general information, program planning, program management, implementation of the program, budget, and program evaluation. Results of the program indicated the recidivism rate for returnees in the project decreased each year, the number of days survived at school increased, and attendance improved. A subjective evaluation is included. (MJM)

The purpose of this study was to determine the reliability with which youngsters' contacts with law enforcement agencies could be predicted over an eight year period, to determine the significant predictors, and to develop a practical system for early prediction of delinquency and early identification of its causes. A special nomination instrument was prepared and submitted to all the teachers of Grades three, six, and nine throughout an entire county in Wisconsin. This instrument was used to select a representative sample according to classroom behavior, grade level, home location, and sex. Some results are as follows: persistent aggressive-disruptive classroom behavior clearly heralds the onset of delinquent behavior, sex and home location (urban or rural) are both significant predictors of delinquency, and IQ was also found to be a predictor of delinquency, delinquents being significantly lower than other youngsters in intelligence. It was suggested that the results of this research be used to predict future contacts of individual youngsters with law-enforcement agencies. (BW/Author)

Intended for those concerned with the prevention, control, and rehabilitation aspects of juvenile delinquency, this guide is designed to assist the instructor in using the training manual, available as VT 014 825 and VT 014 826 in this issue. Arranged in a case-by-case format, a discussion outline is provided for the police, probation, and judicial activities of each of the five juvenile offense cases. Readings which are relevant to each section are incorporated in the discussion outlines. (SB)

Intended for those concerned with the prevention, control, and rehabilitation aspects of juvenile delinquency, this training manual is the first of a three-volume series addressed to decision making in the agencies of juvenile justice. An introductory section discusses the problem of training, along with the background and rationale of this set of curriculum materials. Following the introduction, two separate juvenile offense cases are presented and discussed from the time police first become aware of them, through probation, and to their final disposition by the court. The decisions made at each level are followed by a series of discussions highlighting some of the problems involved, and readings which are relevant to the decisions are incorporated. Related volumes are available as VT 014 826 and VT 014 827 in this issue. (SB)

This volume represents a continuation of the case studies begun in the first of a three-volume series addressed to decision making in the agencies of juvenile justice. Three separate juvenile offense cases are presented and discussed from the time police first become aware of them, through probation, and to their final disposition by the court. The decisions made at each level are followed by a series of discussions highlighting some of the problems involved, and readings which are relevant to the decisions are incorporated. Related volumes are available as VT 014 825 and VT 014 827 in this issue. (SB)

Between 1961 and 1971 a systematic series of investigations aimed at developing social-learning-based home intervention procedures for the treatment of hyper-aggressive children was carried out. As a result of this series of studies, a set of social learning techniques were developed, articulated, and cross-validated. The data from these experiments indicated that highly aggressive, pre-adolescent boys could be treated effectively in their homes by training their parents to use social learning child management procedures at an average cost of 25 to 28 professional hours per family. This paper; (1) describes some differences observed among stealers, non-stealers, and a control sample; (2) compares parents of these stealers, non stealers, and controls; and (3) describes the initial impressions of a new treatment sample of children whose primary referral problem was stealing rather than social aggression. (Author)

Cross-cultural surveys of 6th grade children in 12 countries presented them with six hypothetical situations in which friends had committed minor violations of adult norms (stealing, cheating on a test, breaking a window, and mischievous pranks). They were asked if they would inform in response to an adult who asks for the names of those involved. Summarizing 22 surveys revealed that within cultures the disposition to inform was stronger in rural than in urban children and in girls than boys. Analysis of two surveys in Israel and West Germany showed: (1) informing generally more likely when demanded by school authorities after school-related mischief than when demanded by an unspecified adult who was the victim of the mischief; (2) German children more disposed to inform than the Israelis (although both samples were very unlikely to inform and were the two least likely of the 12 countries studied); (3) the relation of informing to family authority structure was similar for the same sex across culture, especially for girls, but unrelated across sex within culture; and (4) combining cultures, informing in boys was more likely for those who described their family as intermediate in the degree of parental decision-making differentiation than for those from either undifferentiated or highly differentiated families, but was unrelated to whether father or mother made most of the decisions. (Author)

Edwin Sutherland's differential association theory was posited to explain all types of criminal or delinquent behavior. While research efforts have generally been confined to a focus on general criminal or delinquent behavior of the individual, it appears that the theory may also be applied to specific criminal or delinquent acts such as marijuana use by the individual. A causal path model based upon Sutherland's theory was developed and operationalized with this emphasis. Two distinct processes of differential association (differential action association and differential attitude association) were suggested to explain the genesis of marijuana use for the individual. The data tended to lend support to the causal path model based upon Sutherland's theory of differential association. References and tables are included. (Author)

This paper describes a community-based approach to delinquency prevention utilizing indigenous nonprofessionals as behavior change agents. Adult residents in two Model Cities communities served as "buddies" of youth referred for behavior and academic problems. The principles and techniques of behavior modification were used in the training of nonprofessionals as change agents and in the treatment of youth in the project. The program evaluation includes an analysis of the various treatment techniques employed. The results indicate that school attendance increased with application of social and material rewards, while other problem behavior was reduced. The findings suggest that reinforcement is a crucial ingredient in the behavior change process. (Author/SES)

This publication discusses an emerging strategy for preventing delinquency and helping the youth of the United States. It is based on a reassessment of present public policies for dealing with youthful deviance, and on the development of new linkages between an understanding of what causes such activities and what can be done about them. The strategy itself focuses on institutional reform, without overlooking the importance of direct work with individuals and families. Provision of services to help prevent delinquency as well as rehabilitation of youth already in trouble with the law are stressed. The study points up the legitimate role which youth have to play and the fact that institutions must change to help provide those roles. The strategy further states that whenever possible troubled youth should be diverted from the juvenile justice system and furnished aid through community-based programs. The publication summarizes principles that are offered as guides in establishing programs of youth development and delinquency prevention. (Author/SES)

While this booklet on juvenile delinquency does not attempt a full review of the literature, it has been designed to further an understanding and appreciation of the social-psychological problems of deviant behavior. The booklet briefly covers the publicity which juvenile delinquency has been given in recent years, as well as the difficulties encountered in enumerating offenders. A third section provides information which might be useful in distinguishing normal and healthy rowdiness and buoyancy from behavior pathology. In addition, a resume of theoretical approaches to delinquency is included: psychoanalytic, identity diffusion and psychosocial moratorium, delinquent ego, normless or "anomie" behavior, differential association, and cultural transmission. Finally, the multiple roles which schools must play in the prevention of delinquency and in handling delinquents among their in-school population is examined. (Author/SES)

Through an experimental analysis, this study demonstrates characteristics of both observer-produced and punishment-produced suppression of cheating behavior. The research procedure, designed to eliminate the interpretative difficulties of prior, comparable research, is fully elaborated. Two delinquent, retarded, adolescent boys served as subjects. Results indicate that both surveillance and punishment decrease the rate of cheating; however, while punishment produced more longlasting suppression, it also resulted in a disruption of the subjects' performance, reflected in decreased accuracy and bursts of responding, which surveillance did not produce. Implications are discussed. (Author/TL)

This teacher's guide to the nine week, junior high course "Youth and the Law" provides a conceptual framework around the facts of the student book of the same title (SO 006 833) that deals with broad issues of law and responsibility. The guide helps the teacher convey to students the value of law and helps the student channel his energy, positively, in the realm of law and order. The teacher's guide emphazises student involvement in the process of inquiry as reflected in the question-orientation of the student book and as an inherent aspect of any of the eight suggested themes through which the teacher and student might explore the content of the book. The broad concepts of each chapter are categorized into intellectual disciplines, such as sociology-anthropology, facilitating an evaluation of the entire course in terms of cognitive performance objectives (questions) for each discipline listed in the guide. The specific content of each chapter is outlined, filled-out with background material and question notes, and augmented by activities and resource materials to promote student involvement. A bibliography of resources for students and teachers completes the guide. (JH)