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The present study evaluates the performance of OptiMAL-IT test and nested PCR assay in detection of malaria parasites. A total of 76 randomly selected blood samples collected from two malaria endemic areas were tested for malaria parasites using microscopy and OptiMAL-IT test in the field. PCR assays were performed in the laboratory using DNA extracted from blood spots of the same samples collected on the FTA classic cards. Of the total of 61 field confirmed malaria positive samples, only 58 (95%) were detected positive using microscopy in the laboratory. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value and false discovery rate of OptiMal-IT in comparison to the microscopy were 93%, 83%, 95%, 79% and 5%, respectively. On the other hand, the sensitivity and specificity of PCR assay were 97% and 100%, respectively, whereas positive predictive value, negative predictive value and false discovery rate were 100%, 90% and 0%, respectively. The overall performance of OptiMal-IT and PCR assays for malaria diagnosis was 76% and 97%, respectively. PCR assay enabled the identification of infection with Plasmodium malariae Laveran, 1881 in four samples misidentified by microscopy and Plasmodium-specific antigen (PAN) identified by the OptiMAL-IT test. In addition to the standard methods, such PCR assay could be useful to obtain the real incidence of each malaria parasite species for epidemiological perspectives.

Background: Mosquito repellents and emanators confer protection against mosquito bites through spatial action of emanated vapours which are released into the adjoining environment. Synthetic insecticides released into the environment in ultra low volume vapour phase deter the mosquitoes from biting humans in a protected space., Methods: Formulation patches were prepared using the solvent evaporation method over a backing membrane and using Dibutylphthalate (DBT) as a plasticizer. The effect of formulation variables on the deltamethrin release from the patch matrices were studied under accelerated conditions, whereas, HPLC was used for quantitative estimation of deltamethrin. The prepared patch formulations were subjected to physicochemical studies, such as, deltamethrin content, thickness, weight variation, percent moisture content, moisture uptake, surface area and surface pH determination. Deltamethrin-polymer interaction and compatibility was ascertained using DSC and FT-IR, while surface morphology and deltamethrin distribution in the patch were studied using SEM technique. Repellent activity of the patch formulations was evaluated against Ae. albopictus mosquitoes., Results: Blends of polymeric combinations of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and ethyl-cellulose (EC) with admixture of deltamethrin provided prolonged repellent activity against Ae. albopictus mosquitoes. Physicochemical characterisation indicated the suitability of deltamethrin patch formulation with the polymeric combinations of PVP and EC. Patches were very effective against laboratory reared Ae. albopictus mosquitoes. No significant difference was observed between the performance of test patches and commercially available repellent cream Mosqshield®., Conclusion: Deltamethrin loaded patches provided effective repellency against Ae. albopictus mosquitoes. The study emphasised that deltamethrin released to the environment in low concentration could be an excellent spatial repellent against hematophagous mosquitoes.

Background & Objectives: Container-breeding mosquitoes, especially Aedes spp are vectors of diseases such as dengue and chikungunya. The abundance of these disease vectors in an area depends on the availability of container habitats and their physicochemical characteristics. The species composition of container-breeding mosquitoes in Asom, India was studied and the larval density was correlated with the habitat characteristics., Methods: Natural and man-made water-holding containers in Sonitpur district of Asom were surveyed for the presence of mosquito larvae. The percent composition of container-breeding mosquitoes and container index were calculated. The physicochemical characteristics of breeding water such as pH, conductivity, salinity, total dissolved solids, turbidity and dissolved oxygen were measured., Results: Aedes albopictus (93.7%) was the predominant species in the container-breeding habitats whereas Culex quinquefasciatus (2.77%), Armigeres subalbatus (2.26%), Ae. aegypti (0.76%), Toxorhynchites sp (0.4%) and Lutzia sp (0.11%) were recorded in relatively low numbers. The larval density (mean ± SEmean) of the container breeding mosquitoes ranged from 4.4 ± 1.8 to 15.4 ± 8.2, while the container index ranged from 1.58 to 5.68%. The mean (± SEmean) pH, conductivity, salinity, total dissolved solids, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen of water in the container habitats were 7.15 ± 0.11; 396.1 ± 58.5 μS/cm; 0.24 ± 0.04 ppt; 207.1 ± 30.4 mg/l; 32.3 ± 5.1 NTU; and 1.42 ± 0.12% respectively. The mosquito larval density in the container habitats was having significant negative correlation with the conductivity of breeding water (r = - 0.89; p = 0.003). Salinity, total dissolved solids and turbidity of water in the habitats were negatively correlated, whereas pH and dissolved oxygen were positively correlated with the larval density., Interpretation & Conclusion: The studies indicated the predominance of Ae. albopictus in the container-breeding habitats and reiterated its importance as a potential vector of dengue and chikungunya in the region. The spread of Ae. aegypti, the principal vector of dengue, in the semi-urban areas probably through road transport is a matter of public health concern. The use of conductivity of breeding water as an index for the proliferation of container breeding mosquitoes in the region could be explored further.

Background: In the present study, a simple, precise, specific, fast, accurate and reliable reverse phase high performance liquid chromatographic (RP-HPLC) method has been developed and validated for the simultaneous determination and quantification of eserine and pralidoxime chloride in drugs-in-adhesive matrix type transdermal patches., Methods: The chromatographic separation was achieved by C18 column, using a mobile phase consisting of acetonitrile: 10 mM potassium dihydrogen phosphate, 10 mM heptane-1-sulfonic acid sodium salt monohydrate in water (30:70, v/v) adjusted at pH 3.0 with ortho-phosphoric acid. Flow rate was 1.0 mL/min and UV detection at 238 nm. The method was validated according to the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) guidelines., Results: The calibration curves were linear over the different concentration ranges of 0.5-10 μg/ml for eserine and 5-25 μg/mL for 2PAM. Relative standard deviation for precision was less than 2.0%. Limit of detection values of eserine and 2-PAM were 0.018 µg/mL and 0.008 µg/mL, respectively. The limit of quantification of eserine and 2-PAM were 0.055 µg/mL and 0.026 µg/mL, respectively., Conclusion: The developed method was applied for the routine analysis of these 2 drugs in drugs-in-adhesive matrix type transdermal patches in order to evaluate the drug content of different formulations. It could be also used with reliability for the determination of the drug in other pharmaceutical dosage forms., (© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.)

We report a new phenomenon related to Al-induced carrier confinement at the interface in core-shell GaAs/Al(x)Ga(1-x)As nanowires grown using metal-organic vapor phase epitaxy with Au as catalyst. All Al(x)Ga(1-x)As shells strongly passivated the GaAs nanowires, but surprisingly the peak photoluminescence (PL) position and the intensity from the core were found to be a strong function of Al composition in the shell at low temperatures. Large and systematic red shifts of up to ~66 nm and broadening in the PL emission from the GaAs core were observed when the Al composition in the shell exceeded 3%. On the contrary, the phenomenon was observed to be considerably weaker at the room temperature. Cross-sectional transmission electron microscopy reveals Al segregation in the shell along six Al-rich radial bands displaying a 3-fold symmetry. Time-resolved PL measurements suggest the presence of indirect electron-hole transitions at the interface at higher Al composition. We discuss all possibilities including a simple shell-core-shell model using simulations where the density of interface traps increases with the Al content, thus creating a strong local electron confinement. The carrier confinement at the interface is most likely related to Al inhomogeneity and/or Al-induced traps. Our results suggest that a low Al composition in the shell is desirable in order to achieve ideal passivation in GaAs nanowires.

India reports the highest number of malaria cases in Southeast Asia, of which Plasmodium falciparum contribute more than half of the cases every year. North eastern states of India contribute only 3.96% of country's population but account for >10% of total reported malaria cases, 11% of Plasmodium falciparum cases and 20% of malaria related deaths annually. In India, chloroquine resistance was reported for the first time from northeast region and since then chloroquine treatment failure is being reported from many parts of the region. Increased chloroquine treatment failure has led to change of the drug policy to artemisinin combination therapy as first line of malaria treatment in the region. However, replacing chloroquine to artemisinin combination therapy has not shown significant difference in the overall malaria incidence in the region. The present review addresses the current malaria situation of northeastern region of India in the light of antimalarials drug resistance., (Copyright © 2013 Hainan Medical College. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The skin irritating, sensitizing, and acute dermal toxicity potential of a novel combinational prophylactic transdermal patch, mainly composed of eserine and pralidoxime chloride as active pharmaceutical ingredients, against (±) anatoxin-a poisoning were investigated in rabbits, guinea pigs, and rats in compliance with the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development guidelines. In primary skin irritation test, rabbits were dermally attached with the therapeutically active transdermal patch or with a placebo patch for 72 hours. The transdermal patches did not induce any adverse reactions such as erythema and edema on intact skin sites. The active patch was classified as a practically nonirritating material based on the score in the primary irritation index. In the Buehler test, guinea pigs were sensitized by the active or placebo transdermal patches attached for 24 hours. The patches did not induce any sensitization reactions in contrast to a severe sensitization reaction that occurred in the positive control. Therefore, the active patch and placebo patch were both graded as weak in sensitization score and rate. Acute dermal toxicity test in rats did not produce any overt signs of toxicity following a 14-day treatment period. Taken together, these findings suggest that the transdermal patch does not cause skin irritation, skin sensitization, or dermal toxic effects following dermal application.

Boerhaavia diffusa is a traditional herbal medicine extensively used in the Ayurveda and Unani forms of medicine in India and many parts of the world. Different parts of the plant are used as an appetizer, alexiteric, eye tonic, for flushing out the renal system, and to treat blood pressure. This study was conducted to evaluate the in vivo genotoxic and/or antigenotoxic potential of punarnavine, a separated alkaloid from the root of B. diffusa using toxicity studies (OECD guideline 474, 1997). The genotoxic and antigenotoxic potential of punarnavine was assayed using the comet assay on lymphocytes, liver, spleen, brain, and bone marrow as well as using the micronucleus test in bone marrow cells including the in vitro chromosomal aberration test. The results demonstrated that none of the tested doses of punarnavine showed genotoxic effects by the comet assay, or clastogenic effects in the micronucleus test. On the other hand, for all cells evaluated, the three tested doses of punarnavine promoted inhibition of DNA damage induced by cyclophosphamide. Based on these results, we concluded that punarnavine, an alkaloid from the Boerhaavia diffusa root, has no genotoxic or clastogenic effects in our experimental conditions. However, it caused a significant decrease in DNA damage induced by cyclophosphamide. It is suggested that the antigenotoxic properties of this alkaloid may be of great pharmacological importance and beneficial for cancer prevention., (Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.)

Carbohydrate polymer-protein blends Zanthoxylum limonella oil (ZLO) loaded microcapsules were prepared by multiple emulsion solvent evaporation technology and the influence of various processing variables on the properties of ZLO loaded microcapsules were examined systematically. It was found that the internal aqueous alginate phase volume, external aqueous gelatin phase volume and concentration of surfactant in external aqueous gelatin phase have a significant influence on microcapsules properties. The essential oil-loaded microcapsules were smooth and spherical in shape as revealed by scanning electron micrograph. Results of Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy indicated stable character and showed the absence of chemical interaction between the microencapsulated oil and carbohydrate polymer-protein blends. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) study revealed the antioxidant nature of ZLO in the microcapsules. The release rate of ZLO loaded microcapsules was analyzed by UV-vis spectrophotometer. 83.80% of oil encapsulation efficiency was obtained depending upon the processing variables. Thus, proper control of the processing variables involved in this technology could allow effective incorporation of essential oil into the core of the carbohydrate polymer-protein blends matrix., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: It has been found that significantly different clinical outcomes occur in trauma patients with different mechanisms of injury. Ground level falls (GLF) are usually considered "minor trauma" with less injury occurred in general. However, it is not uncommon that geriatric trauma patients sustain cervical spine (C-spine) fractures with other associated injuries due to GLF or less. The aim of this study is to determine the injury patterns and the roles of clinical risk factors in these geriatric trauma patients., Methods: Data were reviewed from the institutional trauma registry of our local level 1 trauma center. All patients had sustained C-spine fracture(s). Basic clinical characteristics, the distribution of C-spine fracture(s), and mechanism of injury in geriatric patients (65 years or older) were compared with those less than 65 years old. Furthermore, different clinical variables including age, gender, Glasgow coma scale (GCS), blood alcohol level, and co-existing injuries were analyzed by multivariate logistic regression in geriatric trauma patients due to GLF and internally validated by random bootstrapping technique., Results: From 2006 - 2010, a total of 12,805 trauma patients were included in trauma registry, of which 726 (5.67%) had sustained C-spine fracture(s). Among all C-spine fracture patients, 19.15% (139/726) were geriatric patients. Of these geriatric patients 27.34% (38/139) and 53.96% (75/139) had C1 and C2 fractures compared with 13.63% (80/587) and 21.98% (129/587) in young trauma patients (P < 0.001). Of geriatric trauma patients 13.67% (19/139) and 18.71% (26/139) had C6 and C7 fractures compared with 32.03% (188/587) and 41.40% (243/587) in younger ones separately (P < 0.001). Furthermore, 53.96% (75/139) geriatric patients had sustained C-spine fractures due to GLF with more upper C-spine fractures (C1 and C2). Only 3.2% of those had positive blood alcohol levels compared with 52.9% of younger patients (P < 0.001). In addition, 6.34% of geriatric patients due to GLF had intracranial pathology (ICP) which was one of the most common co-injuries with C-spine fractures. Logistic regression analysis showed the adjusted odds ratios of 1.17 (age) and 91.57 (male) in geriatric GLF patients to predict this co-injury pattern of C-spine fracture and ICP., Conclusion: Geriatric patients tend to sustain more upper C-spine fractures than non-geriatric patients regardless of the mechanisms. GLF or less not only can cause isolated C-spines fracture(s) but also lead to other significant injuries with ICP as the most common one in geriatric patients. Advanced age and male are two risk factors that can predict this co-injury pattern. In addition, it seems that alcohol plays no role in the cause of GLF in geriatric trauma patients.

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Eleutherine indica L. has been used for healing of wound, painful and irregular menstruation, dysentery and lesions, and topically used as antiseptic and antimicrobial agent in folk medicine. In the present study, methanolic extracts of Eleutherine indica was subjected to scientific investigation for in-vivo cutaneous wound healing in wistar rat., Materials and Methods: In-vivo wound healing activity of Eleutherine indica was evaluated by using circular excision experimental models, followed by histopathological and western blot analysis. The healing potential was comparatively assessed with a reference gentamicin sulfate hydrogel (0.01% w/w). Wound contraction measurement, hydroxyproline estimation and western blot for COL3A1, bFGF, Smad-2, -3, -4, and -7 were performed., Results: The methanolic extract of Eleutherine indica showed accelerated wound healing activity as evidenced by fast wound contraction rate and higher hydroxyproline content of granulation tissue. Western blot revealed the Smad-mediated collagen production promoting property of Eleutherine indica methanolic extract. Histopathological examinations also supported the experimental findings., Conclusion: The study revealed that Eleutherine indica promotes wound healing by augmenting Smad-mediated collagen production in wound granulation tissue., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background & Objectives: Simuliids (Diptera) are one of the medically important biting insects group and have worldwide distribution. Their immature stages proliferate in fast flowing river or stream water and have been considered as important ecological indicator., Methods: Aquatic stages of simuliids were collected and speciated from 16 different fresh water rivers and streams. Water flow rate was determined and water samples were analysed for various water variables such as water temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen concentration (DOC), dissolved oxygen saturation (DOS), conductivity, total dissolved solute (TDS), turbidity, resistivity and salinity. Linear regression was used to determine relationship between simuliid density and water variables, whereas multiple regression was used to determine the fitness for the presence of simuliid species. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to determine the water parameters association with simuliid distribution., Results: Total 565 specimens comprising of three species namely, Simulium (S) barraudi Puri, S. (S) striatum Brunetti, and S. (S) himalayense Puri were recorded in the present study. Simulium barraudi was the most abundant (56.8%) and its density was high (χ2 = 289.3; df = 2; p <0.0001) as compared to the others. The average population size of each species was 188.3, whereas Simpson and Shannon-Wiener diversity indices were 0.4466 and 1.306 respectively. Linear regression showed that simuliid density was associated with the water flow rate. Principal component analysis indicated that the water parameters accounted for 42.25% variation along D1 axis, while 24.1% variation along D2 axis. Atleast two principal components have eigenvalue >1 and accounted for 32.6% of variation., Interpretation & Conclusion: Our study provides new information on simuliid species association with breeding water parameters in a little studied region of high biological interest. Turbidity, water flow and pH are important water parameters affecting the simuliid species prevalence. Each simuliid species preferred different sets of physicochemical parameters of breeding habitat, which are specific to that particular species. Therefore, simuliid species community as a whole cannot be considered as a suitable indicator of the streams water quality. In addition to describing simuliids, the information provided herein will be useful for the conservation of aquatic ecology and environment in Meghalaya state of India.

Ischaemic colitis is a rare side effect of antipsychotics, especially phenothiazines and atypical antipsychotics. The colitis may be precipitated secondary to the anticholinergic effects of such medication rather than a direct cytotoxic effect of the drugs themselves. A 32-year-old man with a history of schizophrenia was admitted to the hospital with a history of diffuse abdominal pain and vomiting. His bloods showed leucocytosis. Sigmoidoscopy demonstrated rectal sparing acute colitis, confirmed on biopsy findings. A CT scan also showed similar findings. After careful drug review, it was decided that clozapine was the cause of colitis and promptly stopped. The patient was managed conservatively on intravenous fluids and antibiotics and made a full recovery. Any patient starting antipsychotics should be counselled on their anticholinergic side effects. Drugs should always be considered as a cause of ischaemic colitis; although an uncommon complication of antipsychotics, it can have a potentially fatal outcome.

Mycotoxins are fungal toxin and contaminated to human through food-stuffs. Hematological abnormality, mainly thrombocytopenia and leukopenia are induced after consumption of mycotoxin. Experiments were conducted to evaluate the hematotoxicity of trichothecenes mycotoxins in Sprague-Dawley rats. Hematological parameters viz. Hemoglobin, hematocrit, erythrocyte count (RBC), white blood cell count (WBC), lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, red blood cell distribution width, mean platelet volume, plateletcrit and platelet distribution width were determined at 0, 6, 12 and 24 h after injection of 0.5 ml of T-2, Deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol, zearalenone, neosolaniol, ochratoxin-B mycotoxin equivalent to 1 × 10(-3) μg/μl to Sprague-Dawley rats. Experiments showed that trichothecenes toxin produces severe hematological alternation. The reductions of RBC and WBC were observed in all Fusarium mycotoxins treated group. T-2 toxin group shows severe toxicity as compared to other mycotoxin treated group. DON is the least hematotoxicity and T-2 the most.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is one of the major global health problems, especially in economically under-developed or developing countries. HBV infection can lead to a number of clinical outcomes including chronic infection, cirrhosis and liver cancer. It ranks among the top 10 causes of death, being responsible for around 1 million deaths every year. Despite the availability of a highly efficient vaccine and potent antiviral agents, HBV infection still remains a significant clinical problem, particularly in those high endemicity areas where vaccination of large populations has not been possible due to economic reasons. Although HBV is among the smallest viruses in terms of virion and genome size, it has numerous unique features that make it completely distinct from other DNA viruses. It has a partially double stranded DNA with highly complex genome organization, life cycle and natural history. Remarkably distinct from other DNA viruses, it uses an RNA intermediate called pregenomic RNA (pgRNA) and reverse transcriptase for its genome replication. Genome replication is accomplished by a complex mechanism of primer shifting facilitated by direct repeat sequences encoded in the genome. Further, the genome has evolved in such a manner that every single nucleotide of the genome is used for either coding viral proteins or used as regulatory regions or both. Moreover, it utilizes internal in-frame translation initiation codons, as well as different reading frames from the same RNA to generate different proteins with diverse functions. HBV also shows considerable genetic variability which has been related with clinical outcomes, replication potential, therapeutic response etc. This review aims at reviewing fundamental events of the viral life cycle including viral replication, transcription and translation, from the molecular standpoint, as well as, highlights the clinical relevance of genetic variability of HBV.

Ovitraps baited with hay and leaf infusions were evaluated for enhancing the oviposition response of gravid females of the dengue vector Aedes albopictus. The egg density per trap (mean ± SEmean) was the highest with 30% infusions of Pennisetum grass hay (623.6 ± 41) and rice straw (580 ± 51.3), which corresponded to oviposition activity index (OAI) of 0.62. Infusions (5-50%) of mango and banana leaves with OAI ranging from -0.36 to 0.39 were not observed to enhance the oviposition response significantly over control. Rice straw and Pennisetum grass hay are available round the year in northeastern India and the use of these infusions can be a cost effective way to augment the ovitrap surveillance of dengue vectors.

The northeast region of India, considered as 'hot spot' of biodiversity, having unique ecological environment with hot and high-humidity conditions, has given rise to the world's hottest chilli, 'Bhut Jolokia', which is at least two times hotter than Red Savina Habanero in terms of Scoville heat units (SHU). This study was undertaken to determine the distinctiveness of 'Bhut Jolokia' from Capsicum frutescens or Capsicum chinense through sequencing of the ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene-internal transcribed ((ITS) region along with its phylogenetic analysis. Although a compensatory base change (CBC) in the ITS2 region was not observed between the closely related species of C. frutescens and C. chinense when compared with Bhut Jolokia; phylogenetic analysis using ITS1, 5.8S and ITS2 sequences indicated a distinct clade for all the accessions of 'Bhut Joloikia', while C. frutescens and C. chinense occupied discrete lineages. Further, a unique 13-base deletion was observed in all the representative accessions of 'Bhut Jolokia', making it distinct from all other members within the genus and beyond. The degree of genetic variations along with its extreme pungency might be related to ambient environmental factors of northeastern India.

Garcinia lancifolia (Clusiaceae) is an unexplored medicinal plant used as stomachic, diuretic and its fruit is used to cure dysentery and diarrhoea. The acidic fruits are used to prepare juice, pickle and curries. The phytochemical analysis of different extracts of G. lancifolia leaf, stem and fruit revealed the presence of tannins, saponins, flavonoids, terpenoids, alkaloids and cardiac glycosides. The high phenolic content was observed in the methanol extract of leaf followed by methanol extract of stem and dichloromethane extract of leaf. The G. lancifolia fruit juice exhibited high antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus, Streptococcus mutans, Bacillus mycoides and Bacillus subtilis. The methanol extract of fruit pulp was also very effective against Gram-positive bacteria when compared with Gram-negative bacteria. The radical scavenging activity of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl was highest in fruit juice followed by methanol extract of leaf and stem. All extracts showed concentration-dependent increase in the antioxidant activity.

We report for the first time the growth of GaAs nanowires directly on low-cost glass substrates using atmospheric pressure metal organic vapor phase epitaxy via a vapor-liquid-solid mechanism with gold as catalyst. Substrates used in this work were of float glass type typically seen in household window glasses. Growth of GaAs nanowires on glass were investigated for growth temperatures between 410 and 580 °C. Perfectly cylindrical nontapered nanowires with a growth rate of ~33 nm/s were observed at growth temperatures of 450 and 470 °C, whereas highly tapered pillar-like wires were observed at 580 °C. Nanowires grew horizontally on the glass surface at 410 °C with a tendency to grow in vertically from the substrate as the growth temperature was increased. X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy revealed that the nanowires have a perfect zinc blende structure with no planar structural defects or stacking faults. Strong photoluminescence emission was observed both at low temperature and room temperature indicating a high optical quality of GaAs nanowires. Growth comparison on impurity free fused silica substrate suggests unintentional doping of the nanowires from the glass substrate., (© 2012 American Chemical Society)

Latrepirdine (Dimebon), an anti-histamine, has shown some benefits in trials of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by accumulation of aggregated or misfolded protein such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and has been shown to promote the removal of α-synuclein protein aggregates in vivo. An important pathway for removal of aggregated or misfolded proteins is the autophagy-lysosomal pathway, which has been implicated in AD pathogenesis, and enhancing this pathway has been shown to have therapeutic potential in AD and other proteinopathies. Here we use a yeast model, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, to investigate whether latrepirdine can enhance autophagy and reduce levels of amyloid-β (Aβ)42 aggregates. Latrepirdine was shown to upregulate yeast vacuolar (lysosomal) activity and promote transport of the autophagic marker (Atg8) to the vacuole. Using an in vitro green fluorescent protein (GFP) tagged Aβ yeast expression system, we investigated whether latrepirdine-enhanced autophagy was associated with a reduction in levels of intracellular GFP-Aβ42. GFP-Aβ42 was localized into punctate patterns compared to the diffuse cytosolic pattern of GFP and the GFP-Aβ42 (19:34), which does not aggregate. In the autophagy deficient mutant (Atg8Δ), GFP-Aβ42 showed a more diffuse cytosolic localization, reflecting the inability of this mutant to sequester GFP-Aβ42. Similar to rapamycin, we observed that latrepirdine significantly reduced GFP-Aβ42 in wild-type compared to the Atg8Δ mutant. Further, latrepirdine treatment attenuated Aβ42-induced toxicity in wild-type cells but not in the Atg8Δ mutant. Together, our findings provide evidence for a novel mechanism of action for latrepirdine in inducing autophagy and reducing intracellular levels of GFP-Aβ42.

Objective: To characterize the genetic structure of various populations of Culex quinquefasciatus (Cx. quinquefasciatus) from India representing different geoclimatic locations., Methods: Inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers were used. A set of 20 primers were screened with the laboratory populations of mosquito species. Finally the IS 40 primer was chosen based on the scorable banding pattern showing 100 percent polymorphism among the various populations. The statistical analysis was done using POPGENE 1.31 software. The consensus tree was generated based on UPGMA modified from NEIGHBOR procedure of PHYLIP Version 3.5., Results: The cluster analysis shows the main cluster which is divided into two sub cluster representing all the populations separated as per their phylogeographic and geoclimatic condition., Conclusions: The findings will be helpful in understanding the population variation under different ecological conditions and development of effective vector management strategies., (Copyright © 2011 Hainan Medical College. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Susceptibility studies of malaria vectors Anopheles stephensi Liston (Diptera: Culicidae) and An. subpictus Grassi collected during 2004-2007 from various locations of Arid and Semi-Arid Zone of India were conducted by adulticide bioassay of DDT, malathion, deltamethrin and larvicide bioassay of fenthion, temephos, chlorpyriphos and malathion using diagnostic doses. Both species from all locations exhibited variable resistance to DDT and malathion from majority of location. Adults of both the species were susceptible to Deltamethrin. Larvae of both the Anopheline species showed some evidence of resistance to chlorpyriphos followed by fenthion whereas susceptible to temephos and malathion.

Culex quinquefasciatus is a major vector of filariasis and various encephalitis in India and worldwide. Vector control remains the most successful strategy for the suppression of mosquito borne diseases. The genetic structure of vector populations in terms of insecticide resistance and susceptibility or refractoriness to infection may possibly vary. To exploit the genetic variability in vector population could pave the path for the alternative strategies in vector management. The sequences of ribosomal RNA molecules have been widely used for such studies. Here, we examined the molecular phylogenetic relationship among the Cx. quinquefasciatus collected from different geographical regions of India, using 16S ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) gene nucleotide sequences. The distances among the species were measured using Pearson correlation; the Neighbor-Joining (NJ) method was used for the clustering with appropriate bootstrap values using Data Analysis in Molecular Biology and Evolution (DAMBE) software. The results revealed that the populations are genetically diverse. Based on the distance values and the tree topology on the basis of 16S rRNA sequences reflected the clear biogeographical and geoclimatic pattern among the different geographical populations from India., (Copyright 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

A yellow-pigmented bacterial strain, R4-1A(T), isolated from the midgut of the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus (a vector of lymphatic filariasis), was studied using a polyphasic approach. Cells of the isolate were rod-shaped and stained Gram-negative. A comparison of the 16S rRNA gene sequence of this organism with sequences of type strains of the most closely related species clearly showed an allocation to the genus Chryseobacterium, with the highest sequence similarities (all 97.9 %) to Chryseobacterium jejuense JS17-8(T), C. indologenes ATCC 29897(T), C. arthrosphaerae CC-VM-7(T) and C. aquifrigidense CW9(T). 16S rRNA gene sequence similarities to type strains of other Chryseobacterium species were below 97.5 %. The fatty acid profile of strain R4-1A(T) included the major fatty acids iso-15 : 0, summed feature 4 (comprising iso-15 : 0 2-OH and/or 16 : 1ω7c), iso-17 : 1ω9c and iso-17 : 0 3-OH. DNA-DNA hybridizations with C. jejuense KACC 12501(T), C. indologenes CCUG 14556(T), C. arthrosphaerae CC-VM-7(T) and C. aquifrigidense KCTC 12894(T) resulted in relatedness values of 38.3 % (reciprocal 30.5 %), 29.4 % (32.1 %), 23.2 % (37.2 %) and 29.5 % (47.1 %), respectively. These results and the differentiating biochemical and chemotaxonomic properties show that strain R4-1A(T) represents a novel species, for which the name Chryseobacterium culicis sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is R4-1A(T) (=LMG 25442(T) =CCM 7716(T)).

An experiment was conducted to see the impact of osmotic stress as it is one of the main cause in various soil and water disorders in agricultural field crops, speciallythe seed germination and seedling growth. The osmotic stress was generated using PEG-6000 and the seed germination, seedling growth were evaluated including the status of pigments i.e. chlorophyll (a, b and total), total carotenoids, pheophytin (a, b and total) and different enzymes like amylase, peroxidase, catalase and superoxide dismutase. The various osmotic potentials generated (-2, -5 and -10 bars) showed significant decrease in germination percentage as at the osmotic potential of -10 bars it was observed 70 in comparison to 90% of control. All the seedling growth parameter also showed inhibition with increase in osmotic potential. Increase in osmotic stress decreased Chlorophyll 'a', while Chlorophyll 'b' was increased in -5 bars while total chlorophyll showed decrease in -5 bars osmotic potential. Total carotenoids and pheophytin (a, b and total) were highly increased in -5 bars and decreased in -10 bars osmotic concentration. Enzymatic activity was found to be decreased in amylase while peroixidase, catalase and SOD were increased at different osmotic gradients in comparison to control. The data observed in the experiment can be helpful to assess the impact of any kind of osmotic stress on plant growth and development in crops.

Objectives: To investigate the prevalence of psychological distress in head and neck out-patients., Design: We used the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale to screen 106 patients for mood disorders in a London head and neck ENT out-patient clinic., Setting: Queen's Hospital, Romford, UK., Participants: One hundred and six patients attending a head and neck out-patient clinic., Main Outcome Measure: Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale score., Results: Approximately 39 per cent of patients had a possible anxiety disorder (10 per cent were rated as severe), and 27 per cent had possible depression (10 per cent were rated as severe)., Conclusion: We recommend that a member of the head and neck multidisciplinary team should be trained to identify and correctly refer psychologically distressed patients to appropriate existing psychiatric services.

Amyloid-beta (Abeta) plays a central role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and has been postulated as a potential biomarker for AD. However, there is a lack of consensus as to its suitability as an AD biomarker. The objective of this study was to determine the significance of plasma Abeta as an AD biomarker and its relationship with Abeta load and to determine the effect of different assay methods on the interpretation of Abeta levels. Plasma Abeta1-40, Abeta1-42, and N-terminal cleaved fragments were measured using both a commercial multiplex assay and a well-documented ELISA in 1032 individuals drawn from the well-characterized Australian Imaging, Biomarkers and Lifestyle (AIBL) study of aging. Further, Abeta levels were compared to Abeta load derived from positron-emission tomography (PET) with the Pittsburgh compound B (PiB). Lower Abeta1-42 and Abeta1-42/1-40 ratio were observed in patients with AD and inversely correlated with PiB-PET derived Abeta load. However, assay methodology significantly impacted the interpretation of data. The cross-sectional analysis of plasma Abeta isoforms suggests that they may not be sufficient per se to diagnose AD. The value of their measurement in prognosis and monitoring of AD interventions needs further study, in addition to future longitudinal comparisons together with other predictors, which will determine whether plasma Abeta has diagnostic value in a panel of biomarkers.

Polysaccharides constitute a major component of the bacterial cell surface. They play critical roles in the interactions between bacteria and the host environments, and consequently contribute to the virulence of pathogens. The lipopolysaccharide (LPS) found on the surface of gram-negative bacteria consists of three parts: lipid A, a core oligosaccharide, and the O antigen. The O antigen is the outermost part of LPS and contains multiple oligosaccharide repeating units. Biosynthesis of the O-repeating unit is the first committed step in LPS biosynthesis. We sequenced and characterized the O-antigen biosynthetic gene cluster of Escherichia coli serotype O86. Four glycosyltransferases encoded by the genes within the cluster were cloned and overexpressed. In vitro reconstitution of the O-repeating unit of E. coli 086 was achieved via using these enzymes.

Genetic variability and environmental factors may influence the refractiveness, propagation of pathogen and transmission of disease. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) is one of the widely used molecular markers for population genetic diversity studies. In present study, RAPD is used to ascertain the genetic variability in Culex quinquefasciatus populations collected from various Indian geographical locations. Out of 50 RAPD primers screened, 14 primers exhibited clear, concrete and distinct banding pattern showing up to 100% polymorphism. Primer OPBD3 was tested with DNA of 14 geographical populations from India (including one laboratory population) showed 21 loci representing 14 populations with 100% polymorphism. The genetic diversity among the populations indicated the Shannon index (I) and gene diversity index (H(ST)), 0.48 and 0.31, respectively among the population, displaying rich genetic variation among the Cx. quinquefasciatus populations. Consensus tree showed two clusters indicating the genetic variation among the various geographical populations. The findings of this study may be useful to understand the population variation under different ecological conditions and development of effective vector management strategies.

Data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicate that the prevalence of diabetes is increasing steadily and is coupled with a rise in obesity. Studies such as the Nurses' Health Study show that even slight glucose abnormalities, namely insulin resistance, increase the risk of myocardial infarctions, strokes, other cardiovascular disease, and mortality. Insulin resistance was found to accelerate atherosclerosis, inflammation, the onset of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, obesity, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, and dyslipidemia. Adiponectin was found to have potent antiinflammatory and antiatherosclerotic effects. Similarly, studies indicate that peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor agonists have the potential to treat obesity, diabetes, and atherosclerosis. From a preventive standpoint, it was shown that intensive glucose control reduces long-term cardiovascular risk. This intensive control approach included the use of thiazolidinediones (TZDs; troglitazone, pioglitazone, and rosiglitazone), which were demonstrated to have vascular and nonglycemic effects beyond glucose-lowering. A drawback of using TZDs is peripheral fluid retention. The DREAM study showed that participants with impaired fasting glucose or impaired glucose tolerance who are free from cardiovascular disease benefited significantly from taking 8 mg rosiglitazone per day. The ADOPT study provided evidence that rosiglitazone is more efficient at controlling glycemic loss and maintaining low glycosylated hemoglobin levels than metformin and glyburide. Data from the CHICAGO study indicate that the progression of carotid artery intima-media thickness, a marker of atherosclerosis and a surrogate end point for cardiovascular disease, was slowed more with pioglitazone than glimepiride in a racially diverse population of men and women with diabetes mellitus type 2. Overall, investigators have shifted from a focus on hyperglycemia to a multifactorial approach to risk management in diabetes. This multifactorial approach includes intensive glycemic control, lifestyle intervention, and intensive management of comorbid (dyslipidemia, hypertension, early renal disease) conditions. The implementation of a regular, rigorous exercise and diet program greatly decreased insulin resistance and allowed far more patients to reach their glycosylated hemoglobin goals. Studies with atrovastatin show significant improvement in cardiovascular risk factors in patients with diabetes and hypertension. Short-term studies provide support for the administration of a combination of TZD + sulfonylureas in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2. Likewise, studies have shown that a combination of TZDs + metformin reduced the risk of myocardial infarction. Finally, dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibitors and glycolipoprotein-1 analogs show potential for helping prevent the deterioration of glucose metabolism in early diabetes mellitus type 2.

Chemotypes are presented as a way of selecting a handful of nonoverlapping substructures for a molecular structure representing such things as ring systems and formal counterparts of functional groups. By taking positioning into account, chemotypes can be viewed as a priori postulates of the critical substructure of a compound should it become a lead. The construction and use of efficient single-coverage sublibraries involving cyclic systems, ring systems, and functional groups are presented and illustrated in a case study involving 12 competitive inhibitors of DHFR that emerged in screening the McMaster 50K training library. A 10K single-coverage sublibrary involving positioned functional groups uncovered 10 of the competitive inhibitors and all of the regions with interesting activities giving rise to an a priori enhancement ratio of 4.2. The reasoning underlying the construction of these sublibraries, the corresponding chemotypic logic of followup screening, and the consequential generation of multiscaffold SAR data are presented using the data in this case study.

Mucin-type O-glycosylation has been well characterized in mammalian systems but not in plants. In this study, the purified alcohol-soluble, non-reduced protein (prolamin) fraction from rice seed was investigated for the occurrence of O-linked oligosaccharides. As storage prolamins are unlikely to be O-glycosylated, any O-glycosylation found was likely to belong to co-extracted proteins, whether because of association with the protein body or solubility. SDS-PAGE and MS analyses revealed 14 and 16kDa protein families in fractions that bound to the lectins peanut agglutinin (PNA), Vicia villosa lectin (VVL) and Jacalin, indicative of the presence of O-linked saccharides. Enzymatic cleavage, fluorescent labeling and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis demonstrated a peak consistent with Gal-beta-(1-->3)-GalNAc, with similar MS/MS fragmentation. Additionally, upon chemical analysis, a GlcNAc-containing O-linked carbohydrate moiety was discovered. Protein blotting with anti-O-GlcNAc antibody (clone CTD110.6) was positive in a subpopulation of the 14kDa alcohol-soluble protein fraction, but a hot capping experiment was negative. Therefore, the GlcNAc residue in this case is unlikely to be terminal. Additionally, a positive reaction with CTD110.6mAb cannot be taken as absolute proof of O-GlcNAc modification and further confirmatory experiments should be employed. We hypothesize that O-glycosylation may contribute to protein functionality or regulation. Further investigation is required to identify the specific proteins with these modifications. This 'reverse' approach could lead to the identification of proteins involved in mRNA targeting, signaling, translation, anchoring or maintenance of translational quiescence and may be applied to germinating rice seed extracts for further elucidation of protein function and regulation.

Objective: To assess the change in the bacterial profile and pattern of antibiotic resistance of catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs, the most prevalent form of nosocomial infections) between 1996 and 2001., Materials and Methods: Catheter samples of urine (CSUs) submitted in 1996, 1998 and 2001 (2451, 2460 and 3349 specimens, respectively) were analysed. The distribution of different uropathogens in bacterial CAUTIs and their in vitro antimicrobial resistance was evaluated over the study interval. The likelihood ratio test was used to assess whether there was a linear trend according to calendar year., Results: Escherichia coli was the most frequently isolated pathogen in all years, but its frequency declined over time (35.6%, 32.5% and 26.6%, respectively). Enterococcus was the second most frequent overall, with a significant increase in frequency with time (11.8%, 15.3% and 22.0%, respectively). There was also a considerable change in resistance patterns to antibiotics. As a result, in 1996, CAUTIs were least often resistant to ciprofloxacin (8.0%) followed by co-amoxiclav (18.5%) and cephalexin (25.4%). In 2001, CAUTIs were least often resistant to co-amoxiclav (22.5%), followed by ciprofloxacin (27.2%) and nitrofurantoin (28.8%)., Conclusion: The types of organisms associated with CAUTI have changed over the last 5 years in a UK institution, as have the patterns of antibiotic resistance. Currently, the most appropriate agents for the empirical management of CAUTIs seem to be co-amoxiclav, ciprofloxacin and nitrofurantoin.

Three sulphur containing compounds, carbon disulphide, dimethyl disulphide and dimethyl sulphide were bioassayed for preference after admixing them in cereal base as ready bait block for use against commensal rat, R. rattus (wild type) in four way choice chamber system. Rat preference for different baits was also studied with automatic recording animal activity meter. Rats exhibited attractancy to the baits at 0.005% concentration of all the three compounds while at 0.01% concentration they have showed repellency. Dimethyl sulphide at 0.005% concentration showed better attractancy towards both sexes of rat.