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Gastric ulcers are a common condition in finisher pigs. A study was conducted to investigate the hypothesis that gastric ulceration alters the behaviour of finisher pigs. Two one-hour observations (from video recordings) of home pen behaviour were conducted in finisher pigs, at two farms (one in Denmark and one in Scotland), in the days immediately prior to slaughter. Stomach condition was assessed post mortem according to a pre-established ulcer score index. The behaviour of pigs with healthy stomachs ( n  = 36) was compared with the behaviour of pigs with deep ulceration of the pars oesophagea ( n  = 26). Assessment of various predefined postures and behaviours was made by an observer blind to the gastric ulcer status of the observed pigs. Behavioural data from the two sites were combined in a single analysis. Pigs with gastric ulcers tended to spend less time idle ( p  = 0.081) and less time lying on their left side ( p  = 0.064), and significantly more time standing ( p  = 0.009), or walking ( p  = 0.038) compared to healthy pigs. Pigs with ulcers also showed an increased frequency of posture changes ( p  = 0.02). A decrease in time spent lying on the left and an increase in standing/walking could both be interpreted as attempts to avoid liquid gastric contents pooling in the cranial region of the stomach. This along with the higher level of posture changes observed may indicate some degree of pain/discomfort associated with the presence of gastric ulcers in pigs. This study is the first to identify apparent behavioural differences between finisher pigs with or without gastric ulcers, and further work is needed to establish to what extent the apparent behavioural differences are a consequence of pain or discomfort for the animals concerned. Since gastro-oesophageal ulceration of pigs is associated with pelleting and fine grinding of feed which in turn is linked to increased growth efficiency there may be a dilemma between on one hand concern for preventing gastric ulcers and on the other hand concern for the efficiency and sustainability of pig production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to analyse spontaneous play behaviour in litters of domestic pigs ( Sus scrofa ) for sources of variation at individual and litter levels and to relate variation in play to measures of pre and postnatal development. Seven litters of commercially bred piglets ( n = 70) were born (farrowed) within a penning system (PigSAFE) that provided opportunities for the performance of spontaneous play behaviours. Individual behaviour was scored based on an established play ethogram for 2 days per week over the 3 week study period. We found strong evidence of litter differences in play behaviour ( F (6,63) = 27.30, p < 0.001). Of the variance in total play, 50% was attributable to differences between litters with a lesser proportion (11%) to between piglets within litters. We found similar evidence of litter differences when we analysed the separate play categories (e.g. for locomotor play: F (6,63) = 27.50, p < 0.001). For social and locomotor play the variance was partitioned in a broadly similar way to total play; however for object play the variance was distributed with a more even balance across and within litters. In terms of explanatory factors we found little evidence that at the litter level differences in play were associated with differences in general activity. Of the prenatal factors measured, we found that birth weight was positively associated with total play and the play categories (e.g. with total play: F (1,64) = 12.8, p < 0.001). We also found that postnatal piglet growth up to weaning (as a percentage of birth weight) had a significant positive association with total play and the play categories (e.g. with object play: F (1,66) = 20.55, p < 0.001). As found in other studies, on average males engaged in more social play (e.g. non-injurious play fighting: F (1,63) = 39.8, p < 0.001). Males also initiated more play bouts on average than females ( F (1,62) = 4.41, p = 0.040). We conclude that the study of differences between litters and individuals provides a robust approach to understanding factors potentially influencing play behaviour in the pig. This work also provides support for the use of play as a welfare indicator in pre-weaned piglets as the litter differences in play we observed were associated positively with physical development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Numerous studies have shown that prenatal stress (PNS) can have profound effects on postnatal well-being. Here, the domestic pig (Sus scrofa) was used to investigate PNS effects owing to the direct relevance for farm animal welfare and the developing status of the pig as a large animal model in translational research. Pregnant primiparous sows were exposed, in mid-gestation, to either a social stressor (mixing with unfamiliar conspecifics) or were kept in stable social groups. The ratio of levels of mRNAs for corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) receptors 1 and 2 in the amygdala, measured for the first time in the pig, was substantially increased in 10-week-old female, but not male, PNS progeny indicating a neurobiological propensity for anxiety-related behaviour. Mature female offspring were observed at parturition in either a behaviourally restrictive crate or open pen. Such PNS sows showed abnormal maternal behaviour in either environment, following the birth of their first piglet. They spent more time lying ventrally, more time standing and showed a higher frequency of posture changes. They were also more reactive towards their piglets, and spent longer visually attending to their piglets compared to controls. Associated with this abnormal maternal care, piglet mortality was increased in the open pen environment, where protection for piglets is reduced. Overall, these data indicate that PNS females have their brain development shifted towards a pro-anxiety phenotype and that PNS can be causally related to subsequent impaired maternal behaviour in adult female offspring. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The consequences of tail-docking (at 2–4days) and prenatal stress (maternal social stress during the 2nd third of pregnancy) on baseline nociceptive thresholds and responses to acute inflammatory challenge were investigated in juvenile pigs in two studies. Nociceptive thresholds were assessed on the tail root and on the hind foot using noxious mechanical and cold stimulation before and after acute inflammatory challenge by intradermal injection of 30μg capsaicin (study 1) or 3% carrageenan (study 2) into the tail root. Four groups of 8 (study 1, n=14–16 pigs/treatment) or 5 (study 2, n=6 pigs/treatment/sex) week-old pigs were exposed to the main factors: maternal stress and treatment (docked vs. intact tails). In study 1, tail docking did not significantly alter thresholds to noxious mechanical stimulation, whilst prenatally stressed pigs had significantly higher baseline thresholds to noxious mechanical stimulation on the tail root and on the hind foot than unstressed pigs, whether tail-docked or intact. Capsaicin injection induced localised mechanical allodynia around the tail root in all treatment groups, but had no effect on noxious plantar mechanical responses; however prenatally stressed offspring exhibited significantly attenuated response thresholds to capsaicin compared to controls. In study 2 tail docking did not alter thresholds to either mechanical or noxious cold stimulation. Baseline response durations to noxious cold stimulation of the tail root were significantly shorter in both sexes of prenatally stressed pigs, whilst male but not female prenatally stressed pigs exhibited significantly higher baseline thresholds to mechanical stimulation than controls, although results in female pigs tended towards significance. Carrageenan injection into the tail root induced localised mechanical and cold allodynia in all treatment groups, effects that were attenuated in prenatally stressed pigs. Collectively, these findings indicate that prenatal stress can induce long-term alterations in nociceptive responses, manifest as a reduced sensitivity to noxious mechanical and cold stimulation and evoked inflammatory allodynia. Neonatal tail-docking does not lead to long-term alterations in nociception in pigs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) are only territorial during the peri-parturient period and when young compete for access to teats. In other species, territorial defence is affected by contextual factors including resource quality. Territoriality could be stimulated in species such as pigs by artificial mixing and intensive housing. Test pigs were introduced to a novel opponent for 5min on consecutive days (days 1 and 2) in two locations (home pen of the test pig (P) or a neutral arena (A)) in a randomised block design. On day 1, animals tested in their home pen were more likely to initiate an escalated attack (proportion of pigs 0.43 vs 0.19 in the pen and neutral arena, P <0.01). A shorter latency to attack on day 2 in the PP (pen on both days) and PA (pen then arena) treatments suggested that a previous encounter in the home pen affected later aggressiveness. The time spent engaged in non-escalated aggressive behaviours (parallel walking, pushing, knocking and biting) with the opponent was similar in the two environments. Some capacity for territorial defence through escalated aggression and the enhancement of subsequent aggressiveness appears to occur in pigs when in their home pen. The suppression of escalated aggression in the neutral arena by handling and environmental exploration cannot be discounted, but appears not to have affected the occurrence of non-escalated aggression. The mixing of pigs in an occupied pen is likely to enhance escalated aggression from the occupants without reducing that from the intruders and should be avoided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: There is growing external pressure to abolish the farrowing crate, however alternative farrowing systems need to equal or surpass the performance (i.e. piglet survival) of more restrictive systems. In order to achieve consistent improvement in piglet survival genetic selection strategies targeting specific survival traits could be used. One of the key components of survival in alternative, loose-housed farrowing systems is maternal behaviour and understanding the characteristics of sows that influence survival in such environments should be an essential component when developing new breeding indices. In this study 65 gilts and their piglets (757) from two genetic selection lines, High postnatal Survival (HS) or Control (C), were studied in both indoor loose-housed and outdoor farrowing systems. The influence of genetics and environment on piglet survival and maternal characteristics was studied. Genotype affected total mortality at a piglet level in the outdoor system (C: 17.90% (±3.23) vs. HS: 12.21% (±3.46) W 1 =3.60, P =0.058), but there was no effect in the indoor loose-housed environment (C: 12.29% (±2.69) vs. HS: 14.86% (±3.18) W 1 =0.07, P =0.797). Genotype influenced maternal characteristics, with C gilts in both environments being significantly more likely to crush their piglets when changing posture during farrowing (Mean deviance ratio1,62 =47.25, P =0.002). High Survival gilts in the indoor environment were aggressive towards their offspring, and were the only genotype to display savaging behaviour (Mean deviance ratio1,62 =64.90, P <0.001). This suggests a genetic effect on environmental sensitivity and thus, in order to make effective improvements it is important to estimate genetic parameters (both behavioural and physiological) under the conditions in which the animals will be kept. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In various mammals stress during gestation can result in long term effects on the behaviour and physiology of the offspring. The aims of this study were (i) to characterise individual variation among primiparous sows (gilts) in their behavioural and physiological response to a commercially relevant social challenge (mixing with older sows) during gestation and (ii) to determine whether this variation was associated with a corresponding variation in the subsequent effects on the offspring. After assessing dominance in a food competition test, 24 gilts were studied in groups of six during two one-week periods (unmixed – U). These gilts were split into eight subgroups of three gilts, each of which were mixed with two older sows for one week (mixed – M1) before being returned to their original group of six for two weeks. Mixing was then repeated using different older sows during a second week (mixed – M2). Aggressive behaviour, skin lesions and salivary cortisol increase over baseline were higher, and weight gain was lower during mixed periods. During mixing gilts spent more time in feeder stalls, avoiding sows lying in a straw-bedded area, although there was considerable variation among individuals in the extent to which they interacted with or avoided sows. Gilts which interacted more with sows had lower weight gain and higher lesion scores. Previously dominant gilts had higher salivary cortisol increases during mixing. Measures of the impact of mixing, most notably M1 lesion scores, were associated with the behaviour of their offspring: gilts with more lesions had piglets that were less active and less vocal on the day of weaning and over 31 days post-weaning, and were less aggressive over 31 days post-weaning. Thirty-two piglets (from 16 of the gilts) were either restrained for 30min or not restrained prior to euthanasia at 60 days of age. The restrained piglets from gilts with higher M1 lesion scores had higher levels of corticotropin-releasing hormone mRNA in the paraventricular nucleus and amygdala. This study demonstrates that differences between individual gilts in their experience of a stressful social challenge co-vary with the extent to which this pre-natal stress impacts on their offspring. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Pre-weaning piglet mortality continues to be a major welfare and economic concern. In outdoor farrowing systems, there is a particular need to broaden breeding goals by incorporating selection for piglet survival to improve both productivity and welfare. This study aimed to identify behavioural and physiological survival indicators that are influential in outdoor systems and that could provide additional information for use when selecting for piglet survival. Data were collected from 511 piglets from Large White×Landrace×Duroc sows and Generalised Linear Mixed Models determined which indicators were most important for piglet survival in an outdoor system. With respect to prenatal mortality (surviving vs. stillborn piglets) high ponderal index (P <0.001) or body mass index (P <0.001) in conjunction with being born earlier in the farrowing birth order (P <0.001) were the most important survival indicators. Birth weight (P <0.001) and rectal temperature 1 h after birth (P =0.032) were the most significant postnatal survival indicators. However survival indicators identified as important in indoor, conventional farrowing crates, such as landmark behaviours (latency to reach the udder, a teat and to suckle colostrum), were not influential in this system. These results highlight the importance of studying potential indicators of survival in alternative farrowing systems to the farrowing crate. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This study aimed to compare the prevalence of lameness on organic and non-organic dairy farms in the United Kingdom (UK) and to assess which cow and farm factors influenced lameness levels. Forty organic and 40 non-organic dairy farms across the UK were repeatedly visited over a 2.5 year period. On each visit all milking cows were locomotion scored, and information about farm housing, management and husbandry practices was recorded on-farm. Over the whole study, the mean herd lameness prevalence was 16.2%, 16.3% and 19.3% in the autumn, winter and spring observation periods, respectively. Lameness prevalence was lower (P = 0.012) on organic farms compared to non-organic farms. Numerous specific factors were found to significantly influence the prevalence of lameness. This study provided evidence that organic management reduced herd lameness. It supported previous research which suggested that lameness is a serious problem on many farms in the UK and further emphasised the multi-factorial aetiology of lameness problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this experiment choice tests were used as a tool to determine how dairy cows perceive their feeding environment with specific emphasis on understanding the challenges that low ranking animals face when forced to feed in the presence of socially dominant cows. It was hypothesised that cows would trade-off proximity to a dominant individual at the feed-face with access to food of a high quality. Thirty Holstein Friesian cows were used in the study. A test pen contained a Y-maze, with one black feed bin placed in one arm of the maze and one white feed bin placed in the other arm. During a training phase half of the cows were trained to make an association between the black bin and high quality food (HQF), and the white bin and low quality food (LQF). The other half was trained with the opposite combination, to prevent any colour bias. The status of each cow was assessed and dominant and subordinate cows were paired. Choice test 1 determined if cows had correctly learned the association between colour (of food bin) and food quality. Cows were presented with one black and one white bin in the two arms of the maze, with the presentation of each coloured bin in the left and right arms randomised. When cows achieved an 80% success rate of HQF preference they proceeded onto the next stage, where two further tests were presented. In choice test 2, the subordinate cow was presented with two bins of HQF, one of which had a dominant cow feeding from it. In test 3, cows had a choice of HQF and LQF, with the dominant cow present at the HQF bin. Cows showed a significant preference for feeding on HQF alone rather than next to a dominant (P <0.001). When they were “asked” to trade-off feed quality with feeding next to a dominant, the majority chose to feed alone on LQF (P <0.01). These results suggest that social status within a herd could significantly affect feeding behaviour, especially in situations of high competition and for subordinate individuals. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In animals, including humans, free access to high-quality (generally energy-dense) food can result in obesity, leading to physiological and health problems. Consequently, various captive animals, including laboratory and companion animals and certain farm animals, are often kept on a restricted diet. Quantitative restriction of food is associated with signs of hunger such as increases in feeding motivation, activity and redirected oral behaviours which may develop into stereotypies. An alternative approach to energy intake restriction is to provide more food, but of a reduced quality. Such alternative diets are usually high in fibre and have lower energy density. The benefits of these alternative diets for animals are controversial: some authors argue that they result in more normal feeding behaviour, promote satiety and so improve animal welfare; others argue that ‘metabolic hunger’ remains no matter how the restriction of energy intake and weight gain is achieved. We discuss the different arguments behind this controversy, focusing on two well-researched cases of food-restricted farmed livestock: pregnant sows and broiler breeders. Disagreement between experts results from differences in assumptions about what determines and controls feeding behaviour and food intake, from the methodology of assessing animal hunger and from the weighting placed on ‘naturalness’ of behaviour as a determinant of welfare. Problems with commonly used behavioural and physiological measures of hunger are discussed. Future research into animal feeding preferences, in particular the relative weight placed on food quantity and quality, would be valuable, alongside more fundamental research into the changes in feeding physiology associated with alternative diets. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Summary: In rodents and humans stressful events in early life e.g. maternal deprivation, can increase sensitivity to stress in later life. Humans may become more susceptible to mood disorders, e.g. depression. In livestock species, such as pigs, early weaning is a form of maternal deprivation. We investigated behavioural consequences in 99 female pigs weaned at three different ages (12, 21 and 42 days; d12, d21, d42). Pigs were habituated to an open field arena over 6 days before being given 5-min open-field tests over three subsequent days (days 77–79). Early-weaned pigs (d12) showed behavioural inhibition (reduced vocalisations and lower activity) compared with later-weaned pigs, although in all groups these measures declined over the three tests, so this treatment difference might reflect more rapid habituation to the test in d12 pigs. Long-term effects on mood-related 5-HT receptor subtypes were measured in the brain at 90 days in a random sample of the d12 (n =8) and d42 pigs (n =8), using 3H-ligand-binding and autoradiography and in situ hybridisation histochemistry. There were no differences between weaning ages in binding of 3H-8-OH-DPAT (5-HT1A receptor agonist) or of 3H-ketanserin (5-HT2A receptor antagonist) to any brain region studied. In d12 pigs, 5-HT1A receptor mRNA expression per unit area was 29%, 63%, 52% and 64% lower than in d42 pigs in the parvocellular PVN, amygdala and hippocampal dentate gyrus and pyramidal cell layer, respectively. The ratio of expression per cell to expressing cells per unit area was also lower, by 31%, in the pars horizontalis of the PVN in d12 pigs. Conversely, 5-HT2A receptor mRNA was expressed at a 25% and 28% higher density per unit area in the amygdala and pyramidal cell layer of the hippocampus, respectively, in these d12 pigs. In individual pigs, across brain regions, 5-HT1A receptor mRNA data were 70–79% correlated with binding data but no correlation was found for 5-HT2A data, suggesting different regulatory mechanisms. The behavioural and neurobiological responses to early weaning might represent either dysfunction or adaptation. Further investigation is required. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Adverse early life experiences can permanently “programme” increases in stress reactivity in adulthood. We investigated whether weaning, which involves maternal separation, at different ages, altered subsequent behaviour, physiology and neuroendocrine function in young pigs. The litters of twelve primiparous sows were randomly allocated to weaning at 12 days (W12), 21 days (W21) or at 42 days (W42). Four test daughters from each litter (n =48, 16 from each treatment) were studied from 11 days of age until 90 days of age. At 90 days of age, prior to culling, half of each treatment were challenged with restraint and isolation stress. There was a long-term reduction in salivary cortisol levels following weaning in all groups. W12 and W21 piglets gained weight more slowly after weaning, but by 90 days weights were similar in all groups. Behaviourally, W12 piglets showed more substrate directed and aggressive behaviours, postural changes, and nosing and belly nosing littermates. Surprisingly, W42 piglets exhibited the onset of belly nosing at 28 days while still in the presence of the sow. At 90 days of age there was no evidence that weaning age had persisting effects on the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis. Restraint stress increased plasma ACTH and cortisol levels and CRH mRNA in the hypothalamus demonstrating that the absence of weaning age effects on HPA function was not due to a ceiling effect. This study is the first to investigate long-term effects of weaning age in pigs using a combination of behavioural, physiological and neuroendocrine measures. The results suggest that variation in the age of weaning does not apparently programme the HPA axis but has potentially deleterious effects on behaviour certainly up to 56 days of age. However, our study also raises complications when considering the welfare implications of weaning age. Specifically more information is needed on the causes and long term implications of the sustained elevations of salivary cortisol we observed over the suckling period. The occurrence of belly nosing in later weaned pigs also suggests that care is required when designing environments where sows and piglets are housed together beyond 28 days. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Many of the stressor treatments used in animal models of depression have parallels in the normal experiences of domestic pigs. The experiment described here aimed to assess whether a chronic-intermittent stress regime caused behavioural or physiological changes, indicative of depression, in domestic pigs. Ten juvenile male pigs were exposed to a social and environmental stress regime. Over the stressor period, weight gain was significantly lower in test pigs than in control pigs. Stress treatment had a significant effect on salivary cortisol levels, with test pigs having a higher salivary cortisol concentration than control pigs after the stress treatment but not before. Test pigs showed less ventral lying than control pigs in the post-stress observation. A detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA) of postural behavioural organisation showed that test pigs had a more structured pattern of activity than controls in the post-stress observation and a tendency towards a more structured pattern in the pre-stress observation. There were no major behavioural differences between the two groups during three repeated open field tests. The results suggest that the stressor treatment did create a mild chronic stress, as indicated by the hypercortisolaemia and lower weight gain in the test pigs. However, no unambiguous behavioural indicators of depression were seen. The behavioural analysis did show that fractal techniques, such as DFA, could be applied to pig behaviour and that they can reveal extra novel information about the structure of an individual''s behavioural organisation and how it changes in response to complex environmental stressors. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Post-mixing aggression in commercially housed pigs can be intense and often results in the accumulation of skin lesions. The number of lesions (lesion score, LS) has often been used as a proxy indicator of post-mixing aggression. There has been no previous attempt to quantify the role of different behaviours in the accumulation of lesions. The objective of this work was to investigate the factors that contribute to LS in order to assess the validity of LS as a measure of individual aggressiveness. After mixing into new groups of 12, the durations of reciprocal fighting and bullying, the proportions of fights initiated, won and lost and physical attributes of the pigs were investigated for their impact on LS using multiple regression on a sample of 342 growing pigs. Pig liveweight was the single greatest determinant of LS. The duration spent in reciprocal fighting and being bullied were also significant determinants of the LS and contributed to the total LS in proportions of 0.17 and 0.14, respectively. The proportion of fights initiated, won and lost did not influence the LS for pigs of a given weight. On an individual pig basis, it was impossible to establish the relative importance of reciprocal fighting and the receipt of bullying to the accumulation of lesions by reference to the total LS alone. Engagement in reciprocal fighting was found to result in lesions to the anterior third of the body, whilst the receipt of bullying resulted in lesions accruing on the caudal third of the body. Reference to the location of lesions, in addition to their number, is a refinement of the methodology that potentially allows discrimination of pigs that accumulate lesions as a result of reciprocal fighting or receipt of bulling. A partial replication of the experiment at a second unit (n =84 pigs) with different genotypic, environmental and husbandry conditions confirmed that the duration spent in reciprocal fighting and being bullied were significant determinants of the LS and that the LS approach is applicable across units. Liveweight was not recorded at Unit 2. These results suggest that the LS methodology provides a rapid means of estimating aggressive behavioural phenotypes when reference is made to both the number and location of lesions and pig weight and pen identity effects are accounted for. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

• Solitary but not social play increased prior to and potentially in anticipation of tickling sessions. • There were substantial differences between cohorts in their tickling responses and play behaviour. • Taking account of cohort there was evidence that tickling showed rebound and emotional contagion effects. • Cohort effects may be explained by differences in physical condition prior to tickling. Play is a putatively positive experience and of key interest to the study of affective state in animals. Rats produce 50 kHz ultrasonic vocalisation (USVs) during positive experiences, including social play and tickling. The tickling paradigm is intended to mimic social play resulting in positively valanced ultrasonic vocalisation (USV) production. We tested two hypotheses on the relationship between tickling and play: that tickling would increase play behaviour or that play behaviour would increase in anticipation of tickling, and that tickling would share some specific properties of play (rebound and emotional contagion of unexposed cage mates). Male Wistar rats (N = 64, with 32 rats/cohort) of 28 days of age were housed in pairs with one rat assigned to be tickled and one as the non-tickled control. Production of 50 kHz USVs and hand-following behaviour was measured. Prior to handling, solitary and social play was recorded for 5 min in the home cage. A two-day break in tickling was used to assess a potential rebound increase in responses to tickling. Only one rat within each cage was handled to assess emotional contagion through changes in the behaviour of the cage-mate. Solitary but not social play increased prior to tickling relative to controls (p = 0.01). There were marked differences between cohorts; tickled rats in C2 produced less 50 kHz USVs than those in C1 (p = 0.04) and overall, C2 rats played less than rats in C1 (social p = 0.04 and solitary p < 0.001) and had a lighter start weight on arrival (p = 0.009) compared with cohort 1 (C1). In C1, there was evidence of rebound in USV production (p < 0.001) and a contagious effect of tickling reflected by increased hand-following in cage mates (p = 0.02). We found a positive relationship between start weight and USV responses to tickling (R s = 0.43, p < 0.001), suggesting that the divergence in USV production may be due to developmental differences between cohorts. The results suggest that the relationship between tickling and play is complex in that tickling only affected solitary and not social play, and that tickling responses showed rebound and contagion effects on cage-mates which were specific to cohort responses to tickling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports that the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council has funded an Animal Welfare Research Network to foster improved collaboration with the British animal welfare research community and other relevant disciplines. Topics mentioned include a European Union survey on animal welfare, the use of computer-vision methods to monitor animal behaviour and detect welfare problems, and conflicts of interest when welfare improvements come with more costs to the user.

Over the last decades, theoretical perspectives in the interdisciplinary field of the affective sciences have proliferated rather than converged due to differing assumptions about what human affective phenomena are and how they work. These metaphysical and mechanistic assumptions, shaped by academic context and values, have dictated affective constructs and operationalizations. However, an assumption about the purpose of affective phenomena can guide us to a common set of metaphysical and mechanistic assumptions. In this capstone paper, we home in on a nested teleological principle for human affective phenomena in order to synthesize metaphysical and mechanistic assumptions. Under this framework, human affective phenomena can collectively be considered algorithms that either adjust based on the human comfort zone (affective concerns) or monitor those adaptive processes (affective features). This teleologically-grounded framework offers a principled agenda and launchpad for both organizing existing perspectives and generating new ones. Ultimately, we hope the Human Affectome brings us a step closer to not only an integrated understanding of human affective phenomena, but an integrated field for affective research., (Copyright © 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: Heterogeneous reporting in baseline variables in patients undergoing transsphenoidal resection of pituitary adenoma precludes meaningful meta-analysis. We therefore examined trends in reported baseline variables, and degree of heterogeneity of reported variables in 30 years of literature., Methods: A systematic review of PubMed and Embase was conducted on studies that reported outcomes for transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary adenoma 1990-2021. The protocol was registered a priori and adhered to the PRISMA statement. Full-text studies in English with > 10 patients (prospective), > 500 patients (retrospective), or randomised trials were included., Results: 178 studies were included, comprising 427,659 patients: 52 retrospective (29%); 118 prospective (66%); 9 randomised controlled trials (5%). The majority of studies were published in the last 10 years (71%) and originated from North America (38%). Most studies described patient demographics, such as age (165 studies, 93%) and sex (164 studies, 92%). Ethnicity (24%) and co-morbidities (25%) were less frequently reported. Clinical baseline variables included endocrine (60%), ophthalmic (34%), nasal (7%), and cognitive (5%). Preoperative radiological variables were described in 132 studies (74%). MRI alone was the most utilised imaging modality (67%). Further specific radiological baseline variables included: tumour diameter (52 studies, 39%); tumour volume (28 studies, 21%); cavernous sinus invasion (53 studies, 40%); Wilson Hardy grade (25 studies, 19%); Knosp grade (36 studies, 27%)., Conclusions: There is heterogeneity in the reporting of baseline variables in patients undergoing transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary adenoma. This review supports the need to develop a common data element to facilitate meaningful comparative research, trial design, and reduce research inefficiency., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Purpose: Transsphenoidal surgery is an established treatment for pituitary adenomas. We examined outcomes and time points following transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary adenoma to identify reporting heterogeneity within the literature., Methods: A systematic review of studies that reported outcomes for transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary adenoma 1990-2021 were examined. The protocol was registered a priori and adhered to the PRISMA statement. Studies in English with > 10 patients (prospective) or > 500 patients (retrospective) were included., Results: 178 studies comprising 427,659 patients were included. 91 studies reported 2 or more adenoma pathologies within the same study; 53 studies reported a single pathology. The most common adenomas reported were growth hormone-secreting (n = 106), non-functioning (n = 101), and ACTH-secreting (n = 95); 27 studies did not state a pathology. Surgical complications were the most reported outcome (n = 116, 65%). Other domains included endocrine (n = 104, 58%), extent of resection (n = 81, 46%), ophthalmic (n = 66, 37%), recurrence (n = 49, 28%), quality of life (n = 25, 19%); and nasal (n = 18, 10%). Defined follow up time points were most reported for endocrine (n = 56, 31%), extent of resection (n = 39, 22%), and recurrence (n = 28, 17%). There was heterogeneity in the follow up reported for all outcomes at different time points: discharge (n = 9), < 30 days (n = 23), < 6 months (n = 64), < 1 year (n = 23), and > 1 year (n = 69)., Conclusion: Outcomes and follow up reported for transsphenoidal surgical resection of pituitary adenoma are heterogenous over the last 30 years. This study highlights the necessity to develop a robust, consensus-based, minimum, core outcome set. The next step is to develop a Delphi survey of essential outcomes, followed by a consensus meeting of interdisciplinary experts. Patient representatives should also be included. An agreed core outcome set will enable homogeneous reporting and meaningful research synthesis, ultimately improving patient care., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

The importance of maternal care in commercial pig production is largely ignored. The sow has little possibility to interact with her piglets, and piglets are often subjected to early weaning or artificial rearing. This study aimed to investigate aspects of physiological and behavioural maternal provisioning that contribute to offspring outcomes. We hypothesised that better maternal care and nutritional provisioning would relate positively to piglet immunity, growth and behaviour. Nineteen sows and their litters were studied in free-farrowing pens. Oxytocin and tumour necrosis factor-α in colostrum/milk and salivary cortisol were sampled from sows throughout lactation. Sows were assessed for dominance rank, response to handling, maternal defensiveness, suckling initiation and termination, posture and sow-piglet contact. Piglets were weighed, measured for body mass index (BMI) and sampled for blood (Immunoglobulin G; at birth). After weaning, they experienced a human approach test (HAT) and novel object test. Correlations were explored between individual sow characteristics, individual piglet outcomes, and between sow characteristics and piglet outcomes averaged by litter. Significant correlations between sow and piglet factors were analysed at the litter level in mixed models with piglet outcomes as response variables and sow characteristics as predictor variables, while accounting for sow parity, litter size and batch. Litters grew faster when their sow had lower cortisol values (P = 0.03), while sows with lower cortisol levels had more successful suckling bouts and engaged in greater amounts of sow-piglet contact. Litters had a lower BMI at weaning when the sow had a higher milk fat percentage at d3. Litters of the most dominant sows took longer to approach the human in the HAT, while litters of sows with higher cortisol at d0 took longer to approach the novel object when assessed on correlations (r = 0.82, P < 0.001) but not when the model accounted for parity and litter size (P = 0.35). Only some of the measured nutritive and non-nutritive sow factors influenced litter performance and behaviour, with parity and litter size also playing a role. Given the continued increase in litter size, but also the interest in loose-housed lactation pens for sows, further research on sows' maternal investment and how it can be optimised is warranted., (Copyright © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Microglia play key roles in brain homeostasis as well as responses to neurodegeneration and neuroinflammatory processes caused by physical disease and psychosocial stress. The pig is a physiologically relevant model species for studying human neurological disorders, many of which are associated with microglial dysfunction. Furthermore, pigs are an important agricultural species, and there is a need to understand how microglial function affects their welfare. As a basis for improved understanding to enhance biomedical and agricultural research, we sought to characterize pig microglial identity at genome-wide scale and conduct inter-species comparisons. We isolated pig hippocampal tissue and microglia from frontal cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellum, as well as alveolar macrophages from the lungs and conducted RNA-sequencing (RNAseq). By comparing the transcriptomic profiles between microglia, macrophages, and hippocampal tissue, we derived a set of 239 highly enriched genes defining the porcine core microglial signature. We found brain regional heterogeneity based on 150 genes showing significant (adjusted p < 0.01) regional variations and that cerebellar microglia were most distinct. We compared normalized gene expression for microglia from human, mice and pigs using microglia signature gene lists derived from each species and demonstrated that a core microglial marker gene signature is conserved across species, but that species-specific expression subsets also exist. Our data provide a valuable resource defining the pig microglial transcriptome signature that validates and highlights pigs as a useful large animal species bridging between rodents and humans in which to study the role of microglia during homeostasis and disease., (© 2022 The Authors. GLIA published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Rat tickling is a heterospecific interaction for experimenters to mimic the interactions of rat play, where they produce 50 kHz ultrasonic vocalisations (USV), symptoms of positive affect; tickling can improve laboratory rat welfare. The standard rat tickling protocol involves gently pinning the rat in a supine position. However, individual response to this protocol varies. This suggests there is a risk that some rats may perceive tickling as only a neutral experience, while others as a positive one, depending on how tickling is performed. Based on our research experiences of the standard tickling protocol we have developed a playful handling (PH) protocol, with reduced emphasis on pinning, intended to mimic more closely the dynamic nature of play. We will test whether our PH protocol gives rise to more uniform increases in positive affect across individuals relative to protocols involving pinning. We will compare the response of juvenile male and female Wistar rats as: Control (hand remains still against the side of the test arena), P0 (PH with no pinning), P1 (PH with one pin), P4 (PH with four pins). P1 and P4 consist of a background of PH, with treatments involving administration of an increasing dosage of pinning per PH session. We hypothesise that rats exposed to handling protocols that maximise playful interactions (where pinning number per session decreases) will show an overall increase in total 50 kHz USV as an indicator of positive affect, with less variability. We will explore whether behavioural and physiological changes associated with alterations in PH experience are less variable. We propose that maximising the numbers of rats experiencing tickling as a positive experience will reduce the variation in response variables affected by tickling and increase the repeatability of research where tickling is applied either as a social enrichment or as a treatment., Competing Interests: No competing interests were disclosed., (Copyright: © 2022 Bombail V et al.)

'Tickling' induces positive affective states in laboratory rats as evidenced by the production of 50-kHz ultrasonic vocalisations (USVs), although this has mostly been investigated in males. Juvenile rats emit distinctive 50-kHz USV subtypes. Frequency-modulated (FM) 50-kHz USVs are thought to be associated with positive affect and flat 50-kHz USVs with social communication. FM and flat USVs are produced by both sexes during tickling, but it is unclear whether these calls are produced in relation to particular play-related behaviours, and whether USV subtypes are used in a sexually dimorphic manner during tickling. We tested the hypotheses that FM USVs are associated with tickle-induced play behaviours in a sex-specific way, and that flat USVs are associated with non-play activities. Rats were allocated to one of two treatment groups: tickling (tickled, n = 16/sex) or no hand contact (control, n = 16/sex). Play behaviours (hopping, darting and hand approaches) and FM and flat USVs emitted during the testing session were quantified for each rat, with the frequency of FM and flat USVs made in anticipation of, and during, each behaviour analysed. In females, play behaviours were associated with more flat USVs than in males (before and during; p &lt; 0.001), irrespective of treatment. FM USVs were paired with hopping and darting (before and during; p &lt; 0.001), and in anticipation of hand approaches (p &lt; 0.001) in both tickled females and males compared to controls (both sexes) suggesting that FM USVs are linked with play behaviour. The higher call rate of flat USVs paired with play behaviour in females suggests that there may be sex differences in the role of flat USVs during play. This result is evidence of sex differences in tickle-induced behaviours and has implications for our understanding of the function of different USVs in juvenile female and male rats., (© 2022. Crown.)

Background: Infectious diseases of farmed and wild animals pose a recurrent threat to food security and human health. The macrophage, a key component of the innate immune system, is the first line of defence against many infectious agents and plays a major role in shaping the adaptive immune response. However, this phagocyte is a target and host for many pathogens. Understanding the molecular basis of interactions between macrophages and pathogens is therefore crucial for the development of effective strategies to combat important infectious diseases., Results: We explored how porcine pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) can provide a limitless in vitro supply of genetically and experimentally tractable macrophages. Porcine PSC-derived macrophages (PSCdMs) exhibited molecular and functional characteristics of ex vivo primary macrophages and were productively infected by pig pathogens, including porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) and African swine fever virus (ASFV), two of the most economically important and devastating viruses in pig farming. Moreover, porcine PSCdMs were readily amenable to genetic modification by CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing applied either in parental stem cells or directly in the macrophages by lentiviral vector transduction., Conclusions: We show that porcine PSCdMs exhibit key macrophage characteristics, including infection by a range of commercially relevant pig pathogens. In addition, genetic engineering of PSCs and PSCdMs affords new opportunities for functional analysis of macrophage biology in an important livestock species. PSCs and differentiated derivatives should therefore represent a useful and ethical experimental platform to investigate the genetic and molecular basis of host-pathogen interactions in pigs, and also have wider applications in livestock., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

Background: Type II odontoid fractures are known to have low fusion rates following conservative management with a hard collar. However, most patients are elderly with comorbidities and are not fit for surgery. The present study identified the rates of bony fusion, complications, and clinical outcomes following conservative management of type II odontoid fractures., Methods: We included consecutive patients referred with a suspected odontoid fracture to a Major Trauma Centre in the UK between March 2015 and December 2017. Data including patient demographics, fracture management, complications and outcomes. Bony fusion was assessed by two neurosurgeons and one neuroradiologists. Results were analysed with simple statistics and chi-squared test., Results: 102 patients were included in the study (mean age = 80.4 ± 15.3). 10 (9.8%) were managed surgically and 92 (90.2%) were managed conservatively with a hard collar, for a mean of 87 days. Patients were followed up for a mean of 28.1 months (range 1-855 days) until discharge. 37% developed collar complications, namely pain, stiffness and non-tolerance. Bony union was achieved in 37.3% of patients treated with a hard collar (versus 80% in the surgical group, p  = 0.0096). Increasing age was an independent risk factor for non-union ( p  < 0.001). Of the patients without bony union, none reported symptoms, and 90% were discharged without a collar., Conclusion: The management of type II odontoid fractures are difficult in an elderly, co-morbid population. With conservative management fusion rates are low, and collar complications are not insignificant. However, outcomes are good regardless of union.

Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The importance given to minimising health issues and promoting natural behaviours is a polarising issue within farm animal welfare. It is predominantly thought that members of the public prioritise animals being able to behave naturally over other aspects of farm animal welfare, such as addressing health issues. However, public perspectives may be more multi-dimensional than is generally thought, with the importance given to these different elements of welfare dependent on the situation and state of the animals in question. To examine this, a factorial survey using vignettes, which experimentally manipulated the different levels of health (high health vs. low health) and natural behaviour provision (high behaviour vs. low behaviour), was completed by a sample (n = 810) representative of the UK population (on age, gender, ethnicity). Contrary to the predominant view, this study found animal health had the greatest effect on participants' judgements, explaining more of the variance in their assessments of animal welfare than any other factor. However, findings also indicated that participants considered animal welfare to be most positive when both health issues are minimised and natural behaviours are promoted. Attitudes to natural behaviours also varied more between participants, with females, individuals who do not (regularly) eat meat and those with a greater belief in animal mind giving greater priority to natural behaviours. In the context of public and private welfare standards seeking to meet public expectations, this study provides important insights into how public perspectives of animal welfare are more nuanced than previously thought, influenced by the context of the animal, the aspect of welfare in question and personal characteristics., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

This review paper provides an integrative account regarding neurophysiological correlates of positive emotions and affect that cumulatively contribute to the scaffolding for happiness and wellbeing in humans and other animals. This paper reviews the associations among neurotransmitters, hormones, brain networks, and cognitive functions in the context of positive emotions and affect. Consideration of lifespan developmental perspectives are incorporated, and we also examine the impact of healthy social relationships and environmental contexts on the modulation of positive emotions and affect. The neurophysiological processes that implement positive emotions are dynamic and modifiable, and meditative practices as well as flow states that change patterns of brain function and ultimately support wellbeing are also discussed. This review is part of "The Human Affectome Project" (http://neuroqualia.org/background.php), and in order to advance a primary aim of the Human Affectome Project, we also reviewed relevant linguistic dimensions and terminology that characterizes positive emotions and wellbeing. These linguistic dimensions are discussed within the context of the neuroscience literature with the overarching goal of generating novel recommendations for advancing neuroscience research on positive emotions and wellbeing., (Copyright © 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.. All rights reserved.)

Play is a strong outwardly directed, emotional behaviour and can contagiously spread between individuals. It has been suggested that high-playing animals could 'seed' play in others, spreading positive affective states. Despite the current interest in play contagion there has been no previous attempt to measure the strength of the play contagion effect. The calf (Bos taurus) is ideal for testing the strength of play contagion as play in calves is strongly related to energy intake from milk. We manipulated play in calves through their milk allowances and housed the calves in uniform groups all on the same milk allowance (high = UHigh or low = ULow) or in mixed groups with calves in the same group receiving either a high (= MHigh) or low (= MLow) milk allowance. We measured locomotor play using accelerometers on two consecutive days when calves were four and eight weeks old, in order to study play contagion over a protracted developmental window. We anticipated that differences in the level of play contagion between treatment groups would result in difference in the play levels observed in the MLow and ULow individuals. Contrary to our expectations we found that spontaneous play was suppressed in the high-milk calves housed in mixed groups (MHigh), in comparison to calves housed with group mates all receiving high-milk (UHigh). These results are the first to quantify a negative play contagion effect, particularly in a situation of long-term contact, and may suggest that negative contagion has a stronger effect on play behaviour than positive contagion.

Environmental enrichment (EE) is widely used in the life sciences to study effects of environment on the brain. In pigs, despite lack of EE being a key welfare issue there is little understanding of brain effects of EE in pigs. This project aimed to study the effects of exposure to an EE arena on piglet behaviours and on brain gene expression levels with a focus on IGF-1 and related genes. Eight litters of large white×landrace×Hampshire piglets were farrowed and raised in a free farrowing system (PigSAFE). At 42days of age, 6pigletsperlitter were given access to an enriched arena with plentiful peat, straw and space, (in groups of 4 made up of stable pairs) for 15min per day on 5 consecutive days to allow them to habituate to the apparatus. Piglet behaviours were recorded in the arena for 15min periods on 3 consecutive days. On the final day only one pair of test piglets per litter was given access to the arena. Brain tissue was collected within 45min of the test from piglets exposed to the arena on the day and their non-exposed littermate controls. RNA was extracted from the frontal cortex and QRT-PCR for selected genes run on a Stratgene MX3005P. In both the home pen and the EE arena litters spent the largest proportion of time engaging in foraging behaviour which was significantly increased in the enriched arena (t 7 =5.35, df=6, p=0.001). There were decreases in non-running play (t 7 =4.82, p=0.002) and inactivity (t 7 =4.6, p=0.002) in the arena. A significant fold change increase (FC=1.07, t=4.42, p=0.002) was observed in IGF-1 gene expression in the frontal cortex of piglets exposed to the enriched arena compared to those not exposed on the day of culling. No change in expression was observed in CSF1, the IGF-1 receptor gene nor in any of the binding proteins tested (IGFBP1-6). There was a weak tendency for increased expression of the neurotrophic factor BDNF1 (fold change: 1.03; t 7 =1.54, p=0.1). We believe this work is the first to explore effects of EE on pig brain physiology and development, and also points to a potential role for IGF-1 in brain effects of EE., (Copyright © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Scientific assessment of affective states in animals is challenging but vital for animal welfare studies. One possible approach is Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA), a 'whole animal' methodology which integrates information from multiple behavioural signals and styles of behavioural expression (body language) directly in terms of an animal's emotional expression. If QBA provides a valid measure of animals' emotional state it should distinguish between groups where emotional states have been manipulated. To test this hypothesis, QBA was applied to video-recordings of pigs, following treatment with either saline or the neuroleptic drug Azaperone, in either an open field or elevated plus-maze test. QBA analysis of these recordings was provided by 12 observers, blind to treatment, using a Free Choice Profiling (FCP) methodology. Generalised Procrustes Analysis was used to calculate a consensus profile, consisting of the main dimensions of expression. Dimension one was positively associated with terms such as 'Confident' and 'Curious' and negatively with 'Unsure' and 'Nervous'. Dimension two ranged from 'Agitated'/'Angry' to 'Calm'/'Relaxed'. In both tests, Azaperone pre-treatment was associated with a more positive emotionality (higher scores on dimension one reflecting a more confident/curious behavioural demeanour) than control pigs. No effect of drug treatment on dimension two was found. Relationships between qualitative descriptions of behaviour and quantitative behavioural measures, taken from the same recordings, were found. Overall, this work supports the use of QBA for the assessment of emotionality in animals.

The ability to assess emotionality is important within animal welfare research. Yet, for farm animals, few tests of emotionality have been well validated. Here we investigated the construct validity of behavioural measures of pig emotionality in an open-field test by manipulating the experiences of pigs in three ways. In Experiment One (pharmacological manipulation), pigs pre-treated with Azaperone, a drug used to reduce stress in commercial pigs, were more active, spent more time exploring and vocalised less than control pigs. In Experiment Two (social manipulation), pigs that experienced the open-field arena with a familiar companion were also more exploratory, spent less time behaviourally idle, and were less vocal than controls although to a lesser degree than in Experiment One. In Experiment Three (novelty manipulation), pigs experiencing the open field for a second time were less active, explored less and vocalised less than they had done in the first exposure to the arena. A principal component analysis was conducted on data from all three trials. The first two components could be interpreted as relating to the form (cautious to exploratory) and magnitude (low to high arousal) of the emotional response to open-field testing. Based on these dimensions, in Experiment One, Azaperone pigs appeared to be less fearful than saline-treated controls. However, in Experiment Two, exposure to the arena with a conspecific did not affect the first two dimensions but did affect a third behavioural dimension, relating to oro-nasal exploration of the arena floor. In Experiment Three, repeat exposure altered the form but not the magnitude of emotional response: pigs were less exploratory in the second test. In conclusion, behavioural measures taken from pigs in an open-field test are sensitive to manipulations of their prior experience in a manner that suggests they reflect underlying emotionality. Behavioural measures taken during open-field exposure can be useful for making assessments of both pig emotionality and of their welfare., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

There have been increases in the number of organic dairy farms in the UK in recent years. However, there is little information on the impact of organic regulations on cow welfare. As part of a larger study, we aimed to investigate differences between organic and non-organic farms in management practices and winter housing quality. Forty organic and 40 non-organic farms throughout the UK were visited. Organic and non-organic farms were paired for housing type, and as far as possible for herd size, genetic merit and location. A detailed questionnaire covering key aspects of dairy management was carried out with each farmer. On a subset of twenty pairs, an assessment of the quality of the winter housing for both lactating and dry cows was undertaken, covering the parlour, bedding, loafing and feeding areas. Management practices and building conditions varied greatly within farm types and there was considerable overlap between organic and non-organic farms. Milk yield, level and composition of concentrate feed, management of heifers and calving, and use of 'alternative treatments' to prevent and treat mastitis differed between organic and non-organic farms. In all other respects there were no differences between farm types. Building dimensions per cow did not differ, even though organic recommendations advise greater space per cow than recommended for non-organic farms. The similarity between organic and non-organic farms in most respects indicates that cow housing and health, based on both the described management regimes and the farmers' perceptions of disease incidence, on organic dairy farms is neither compromised by the regulations, nor considerably better than on non-organic farms.