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Background: In the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota, the toothless pterosaurs flourished with the chaoyangopterids and tapejarids playing a key role in understanding the early diversity and evolution of the Azhdarchoidea. Unlike the more diverse tapejarids, the rarer chaoyangopterids are characterized by a long and low rostrum, supporting a close relationship with the huge azhdarchids. Unfortunately, our knowledge is still limited in the osteology, paleoecology, and taxonomy of the Chaoyangopteridae. As one of the best preserved skeletons, the type and only specimen of Jidapterus edentus provides an opportunity to understand the morphology and paleoecology of the chaoyangopterids. Results: Our study of the osteology of Jidapterus edentus reveals valuable information about the morphology of the Chaoyangopteridae such as a rostrum with a curved dorsal profile, high Rostral Index (RI), larger angle between the dorsal and postorbital processes of the jugal, sequentially shorter fourth to seventh cervical vertebrae, sternum with a plate wider than long, contact of the metacarpal I with the distal syncarpal, pneumatic foramen on first wing phalanx, hatchet-like postacetabular process with unconstricted neck and small dorsal process, distinctly concave anterior margin of pubis, subrectangular pubic plate with nearly parallel anterior and posterior margins, longer proximal phalanges of pedal digits III and IV, as well as reduced and less curved pedal unguals. These features further support the validity of Jidapterus edentus as a distinct species and the close relationship of the chaoyangopterids with the azhdarchids. Paleoecologically, the chaoyangopterids are probably like the azhdarchids, more terrestrial than the contemporaneous and putatively arboreal tapejarids, which may have been limited to the forest-dominated ecosystem of the Jehol Biota. Discussion: The osteology of Jidapterus edentus further supports the close relationship of the Chaoyangopteridae with the Azhdarchidae in sharing a high RI value and reduced and mildly-curved pedal unguals, and it also implies a possible paleoecological similarity in their terrestrial capability. Combined with the putatively arboreal and herbivorous tapejarids, this distinct lifestyle of the chaoyangopterids provides new insights into the diversity of pterosaurs in the ecosystem of the Jehol Biota. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Flying insects use feedback from various sensory modalities including vision and mechanosensation to navigate through their environment. The rapid speed of mechanosensory information acquisition and processing compensates for the slower processing times associated with vision, particularly under low light conditions. While halteres in dipteran species are well known to provide such information for flight control, less is understood about the mechanosensory roles of their evolutionary antecedent, wings. The features that wing mechanosensory neurons (campaniform sensilla) encode remains relatively unexplored. We hypothesized that the wing campaniform sensilla of the hawkmoth, Manduca sexta, rapidly and selectively extract mechanical stimulus features in a manner similar to halteres. We used electrophysiological and computational techniques to characterize the encoding properties of wing campaniform sensilla. To accomplish this, we developed a novel technique for localizing receptive fields using a focused IR laser that elicits changes in the neural activity of mechanoreceptors. We found that (i) most wing mechanosensors encoded mechanical stimulus features rapidly and precisely, (ii) they are selective for specific stimulus features, and (iii) there is diversity in the encoding properties of wing campaniform sensilla. We found that the encoding properties of wing campaniform sensilla are similar to those for haltere neurons. Therefore, it appears that the neural architecture that underlies the haltere sensory function is present in wings, which lends credence to the notion that wings themselves may serve a similar sensory function. Thus, wings may not only function as the primary actuator of the organism but also as sensors of the inertial dynamics of the animal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mixed dispersal strategies are a form of bet hedging in which a species or population utilizes different dispersal strategies dependent upon biotic or abiotic conditions. Here we provide an example of a mixed dispersal strategy in the Aedes albopictus / Ascogregarina taiwanensis host/parasite system, wherein upon host emergence, the gregarine parasite is either carried with an adult mosquito leaving the larval habitat, or released back into the larval habitat. We show that the parasite invests a larger proportion of its dispersing (oocyst) life stage into adult female mosquitoes as opposed to adult male mosquitoes at low parasite exposure levels. However, as the exposure level of parasite increases, so does the parasite investment in adult males, whereas there is no change in the proportion of oocysts in the adult female, regardless of dose. Thus, A. taiwanensis is utilizing several dispersal strategies, depending upon host sex and intraspecific density. Furthermore, we demonstrate that this parasite reduces body size, increases time to emergence in females, and leads to a reduction in estimates of per capita growth rate of the host. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Both sexes of two sympatric and sexually dimorphic species, Sovia lucasii (Mabille, 1876) and S. lii Xue, 2015, are associated based on DNA barcoding using the COI (mitochondrial cytochrome coxidase I) gene. The females are thus identified for the first time, and their wing patterns and genitalia are described and illustrated for the convenience of morphological identification hereafter. A new subspecies, S. lucasii minor ssp. nov., from the northeastern and eastern parts of the Sichuan Basin of China, is reported. External and genital differences between the new taxon and the nominate subspecies, which is distributed in western Sichuan and newly discovered in northwestern Guangxi, are illustrated and discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum has become the second most important insect model organism and is frequently used in developmental biology, genetics and pest-associated research. Consequently, the methodological arsenal increases continuously, but many routinely applied techniques for Drosophila melanogaster and other insect species are still unavailable. For example, a protocol for non-lethal genotyping has not yet been adapted but is particularly useful when individuals with known genotypes are required for downstream experiments. In this study, we present a workflow for non-lethal genotyping of T. castaneum adults based on extracting genomic DNA from wing tissue. In detail, we describe a convenient procedure for wing dissection and a custom method for wing digestion that allows PCR-based genotyping of up to fifty adults in less than an afternoon with a success rate of about 86%. The amount of template is sufficient for up to ten reactions while viability and fertility of the beetles are preserved. We prove the applicability of our protocol by genotyping the white / scarlet gene pair alleles from the black-eyed San Bernadino wild-type and white-eyed Pearl recessive mutant strains spanning four generations. Non-lethal genotyping has the potential to improve and accelerate many workflows: Firstly, during the establishment process of homozygous cultures or during stock keeping of cultures that carry recessively lethal alleles, laborious test crossing is replaced by non-lethal genotyping. Secondly, in genome engineering assays, non-lethal genotyping allows the identification of appropriate founders before they are crossed against wild-types, narrowing the efforts down to only the relevant individuals. Thirdly, non-lethal genotyping simplifies experimental strategies, in which genotype and behavior should be correlated, since the genetic configuration of potential individuals can be determined before the actual behavior assays is performed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While white-nose syndrome (WNS) has decimated hibernating bat populations in the Nearctic, species from the Palearctic appear to cope better with the fungal skin infection causing WNS. This has encouraged multiple hypotheses on the mechanisms leading to differential survival of species exposed to the same pathogen. To facilitate intercontinental comparisons, we proposed a novel pathogenesis-based grading scheme consistent with WNS diagnosis histopathology criteria. UV light-guided collection was used to obtain single biopsies from Nearctic and Palearctic bat wing membranes non-lethally. The proposed scheme scores eleven grades associated with WNS on histopathology. Given weights reflective of grade severity, the sum of findings from an individual results in weighted cumulative WNS pathology score. The probability of finding fungal skin colonisation and single, multiple or confluent cupping erosions increased with increase in Pseudogymnoascus destructans load. Increasing fungal load mimicked progression of skin infection from epidermal surface colonisation to deep dermal invasion. Similarly, the number of UV-fluorescent lesions increased with increasing weighted cumulative WNS pathology score, demonstrating congruence between WNS-associated tissue damage and extent of UV fluorescence. In a case report, we demonstrated that UV-fluorescence disappears within two weeks of euthermy. Change in fluorescence was coupled with a reduction in weighted cumulative WNS pathology score, whereby both methods lost diagnostic utility. While weighted cumulative WNS pathology scores were greater in the Nearctic than Palearctic, values for Nearctic bats were within the range of those for Palearctic species. Accumulation of wing damage probably influences mortality in affected bats, as demonstrated by a fatal case of Myotis daubentonii with natural WNS infection and healing in Myotis myotis. The proposed semi-quantitative pathology score provided good agreement between experienced raters, showing it to be a powerful and widely applicable tool for defining WNS severity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The North American little black ant, Monomorium sp. AZ-02 (subfamily Myrmicinae), displays a dimorphism that consists of alate (winged) and ergatoid (wingless) queens. Surveys at our field site in southcentral Arizona, USA, demonstrated that only one queen phenotype (alate or ergatoid) occurred in each colony during the season in which reproductive sexuals were produced. A morphometric analysis demonstrated that ergatoid queens retained all specialized anatomical features of alate queens (except for wings), and that they were significantly smaller and had a lower mass than alate queens. Using eight morphological characters, a discriminant analysis correctly categorized all queens (40 of 40) of both phenotypes. A molecular phylogeny using 420 base pairs of the mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase I demonstrated that alate and ergatoid queens are two alternative phenotypes within the species; both phenotypes were intermixed on our phylogeny, and both phenotypes often displayed the same haplotype. A survey of the genus Monomorium (358 species) found that wingless queens (ergatoid queens, brachypterous queens) occur in 42 of 137 species (30.6%) in which the queen has been described. These wingless queen species are geographically and taxonomically widespread as they occur on several continents and in eight species groups, suggesting that winglessness probably arose independently on many occasions in the genus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gene regulatory networks (GRNs) evolve as a result of the coevolutionary processes acting on transcription factors (TFs) and the cis-regulatory modules they bind. The zinc-finger TF zelda (zld) is essential for the maternal-to-zygotic transition (MZT) in Drosophila melanogaster, where it directly binds over thousand cis-regulatory modules to regulate chromatin accessibility. D. melanogaster displays a long germ type of embryonic development, where all segments are simultaneously generated along the whole egg. However, it remains unclear if zld is also involved in the MZT of short-germ insects (including those from basal lineages) or in other biological processes. Here we show that zld is an innovation of the Pancrustacea lineage, being absent in more distant arthropods (e.g. chelicerates) and other organisms. To better understand zld´s ancestral function, we thoroughly investigated its roles in a short-germ beetle, Tribolium castaneum, using molecular biology and computational approaches. Our results demonstrate roles for zld not only during the MZT, but also in posterior segmentation and patterning of imaginal disc derived structures. Further, we also demonstrate that zld is critical for posterior segmentation in the hemipteran Rhodnius prolixus, indicating this function predates the origin of holometabolous insects and was subsequently lost in long-germ insects. Our results unveil new roles of zld in different biological contexts and suggest that changes in expression of zld (and probably other major TFs) are critical in the evolution of insect GRNs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wings of Bombyx mori (B. mori) develop from the primordium, and different B. mori strains have different wing types. In order to identify the key factors influencing B. mori wing development, we chose strains P50 and U11, which are typical for normal wing and minute wing phenotypes, respectively. We dissected the wing disc on the 1st-day of wandering stage (P50D1 and U11D1), 2nd-day of wandering stage (P50D2 and U11D2), and 3rd-day of wandering stage (P50D3 and U11D3). Subsequently, RNA-sequencing (RNA-Seq) was performed on both strains in order to construct their gene expression profiles. P50 exhibited 628 genes differentially expressed to U11, 324 up-regulated genes, and 304 down-regulated genes. Five enriched gene ontology (GO) terms were identified by GO enrichment analysis based on these differentially expressed genes (DEGs). KEGG enrichment analysis results showed that the DEGs were enriched in five pathways; of these, we identified three pathways related to the development of wings. The three pathways include amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism pathway, proteasome signaling pathway, and the Hippo signaling pathway. The representative genes in the enrichment pathways were further verified by quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The RNA-Seq and qRT-PCR results were largely consistent with each other. Our results also revealed that the significantly different genes obtained in our study might be involved in the development of the size of B. mori wings. In addition, several KEGG enriched pathways might be involved in the regulation of the pathways of wing formation. These results provide a basis for further research of wing development in B. mori. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Temporal isolation remains an understudied, and potentially under-appreciated, mechanism of reproductive isolation. Phenological differences have been discovered in populations of the pine white butterfly (Neophasia menapia), a typically univoltine species found throughout western North America. At two locations in the Coast Range of California there are two periods of adult emergence per year, one in early summer (July) and one in late summer/autumn (September/October). Differences in flight time are accompanied by differences in wing shape and pigmentation. Here we use a combination of population genomics and morphological analyses to assess the extent to which temporal isolation is able to limit gene flow between sympatric early and late flights. Not only did we detect both genetic and morphological differences between early and late flights at the two sites, we also found that the patterns of differentiation between the two flights were different at each location, suggesting an independent origin for the two sympatric flights. Additionally, we found no evidence that these sympatric flights originated via colonization from any of the other sampled localities. We discuss several potential hypotheses about the origin of these temporally isolated sympatric flights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Animals respond to changes in power requirements during locomotion by modulating the intensity of recruitment of their propulsive musculature, but many questions concerning how muscle recruitment varies with speed across modes of locomotion remain unanswered. We measured normalized average burst EMG (aEMG) for pectoralis major and biceps brachii at different flight speeds in two relatively distantly related bat species: the aerial insectivore Eptesicus fuscus, and the primarily fruit-eating Carollia perspicillata. These ecologically distinct species employ different flight behaviors but possess similar wing aspect ratio, wing loading and body mass. Because propulsive requirements usually correlate with body size, and aEMG likely reflects force, we hypothesized that these species would deploy similar speed-dependent aEMG modulation. Instead, we found that aEMG was speed independent in E. fuscus and modulated in a U-shaped or linearly increasing relationship with speed in C. perspicillata. This interspecific difference may be related to differences in muscle fiber type composition and/or overall patterns of recruitment of the large ensemble of muscles that participate in actuating the highly articulated bat wing. We also found interspecific differences in the speed dependence of 3D wing kinematics: E. fuscus modulates wing flexion during upstroke significantly more than C. perspicillata. Overall, we observed two different strategies to increase flight speed: C. perspicillata tends to modulate aEMG, and E. fuscus tends to modulate wing kinematics. These strategies may reflect different requirements for avoiding negative lift and overcoming drag during slow and fast flight, respectively, a subject we suggest merits further study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article offers information on the fungal epizootics infection caused by Entomophthora muscae in flies. Topics include belonging of arthropod pathogenic fungi to the phylum Entomophthoromycotina and are ascomycetes; commonly witnessed epizootics caused by entomophthoralean species infecting flies, aphids, and grasshoppers; and starting of infection with the germination of a conidium.

The body size, especially in cases of extreme reduction, is an important characteristic that strongly determines the morphology, physiology, and biology of animals. Miniaturization is a widespread trend in animal evolution and one of the principal directions of evolution in insects. Miniaturization-related features of insect morphology have been subject to intensive studies during the last few years, but the structure of the smallest insects remains insufficiently known. It is especially important to study hymenopterans of the genus Megaphragma, which include the smallest flying insects and a species in which an almost anucleate nervous system was recently discovered. This article is the first detailed study of the external and internal morphology of adults of Megaphragma mymaripenne and M. amalphitanum using histological methods, 3D computer modeling and other techniques. It is shown that in spite of the extremely small size the organization of Megaphragma retains a considerkable level of structural complexity. On the other hand, miniaturization leads to re-organizations of several organ systems. Unique structural features related to miniaturization have been found in both species: lysis of cell bodies and nuclei of neurons at late stages of pupal development, absence of the heart, and considerable reductions in the set of muscles. Comparative analysis of structure in the smallest insects representing different taxa has revealed common features of the evolutionary process of miniaturization in insects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of apex flap and tip flap, deflected both independently and jointly, on the vortex flow and lift generation of a 65 deg-sweep delta wing was investigated experimentally. The drooped apex flap produced a higher lift at medium-to-high angle of attack regime and also a delayed stall. The anhedral (introduced by the downward tip flap) generally promoted lift increment, whereas dihedral had the opposite effect. Meanwhile, the joint apex and tip flap deflection gave a delayed leading-edge vortex (LEV) breakdown and an enhanced lift. The LEVs were generally drawn closer to the wing upper surface, while being pushed further away from the wing centerline by the application of apex flap and tip flap. The flap also modified the vorticity distribution in the LEV; the bursting behavior was, however, not affected. Dye-injection flow visualization and particle image velocimetry (PIV) measurements of the vortex flow were also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Soaring birds can balance the energetic costs of movement by switching between flapping, soaring and gliding flight. Accelerometers can allow quantification of flight behavior and thus a context to interpret these energetic costs. However, models to interpret accelerometry data are still being developed, rarely trained with supervised datasets, and difficult to apply. We collected accelerometry data at 140Hz from a trained golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) whose flight we recorded with video that we used to characterize behavior. We applied two forms of supervised classifications, random forest (RF) models and K-nearest neighbor (KNN) models. The KNN model was substantially easier to implement than the RF approach but both were highly accurate in classifying basic behaviors such as flapping (85.5% and 83.6% accurate, respectively), soaring (92.8% and 87.6%) and sitting (84.1% and 88.9%) with overall accuracies of 86.6% and 92.3% respectively. More detailed classification schemes, with specific behaviors such as banking and straight flights were well classified only by the KNN model (91.24% accurate; RF = 61.64% accurate). The RF model maintained its accuracy of classifying basic behavior classification accuracy of basic behaviors at sampling frequencies as low as 10Hz, the KNN at sampling frequencies as low as 20Hz. Classification of accelerometer data collected from free ranging birds demonstrated a strong dependence of predicted behavior on the type of classification model used. Our analyses demonstrate the consequence of different approaches to classification of accelerometry data, the potential to optimize classification algorithms with validated flight behaviors to improve classification accuracy, ideal sampling frequencies for different classification algorithms, and a number of ways to improve commonly used analytical techniques and best practices for classification of accelerometry data. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate estimation of the radiation released at incidents, such as nuclear accidents or radiological terrorist events is of major importance for the prediction of health effects following such an incident. The luminescence properties of several materials are studied in order to assess their potential use as dosimeters in such cases. However, the protocols followed for such purposes are mainly those initially developed for dating. Multiple-aliquot protocols are mainly based on the Thermoluminescence response of the dosimeter used and require the availability of abundant material, while homogeneity of the luminescent substance in the entire sample is also a prerequisite in order to prepare similar aliquots. To account for the above drawbacks, several single -aliquot protocols have been suggested based on Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL), which however involve steps of heating the sample up to 300 °C, and as a result they can only be used for heat-resistant materials. In the present work, a novel single aliquot regenerative-dose protocol suitable for heat-sensitive materials exhibiting sensitization (called SARHS) for the estimation of the equivalent dose with OSL is proposed. The protocol eliminates any sensitization effects without encompassing any heating of the sample. Validation of the SARHS protocol was accomplished with three different heat-sensitive materials which exhibit sensitivity changes with the repeated use of the same sample (sensitization), i.e., dragonfly wings, a commercial solid drug (Daktarin) and chicken bones, in which the natural equivalent dose could be successfully recovered with negligible error even when fading, after exposure to irradiation, of the natural OSL signal was taken into account. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present paper, the controlled flight of fruitflies after voluntary takeoff is studied. Wing and body kinematics of the insects after takeoff are measured using high-speed video techniques, and the aerodynamic force and moment are calculated by the computational fluid dynamics method based on the measured data. How the control moments are generated is analyzed by correlating the computed moments with the wing kinematics. A fruit-fly has a large pitch-up angular velocity owing to the takeoff jump and the fly controls its body attitude by producing pitching moments. It is found that the pitching moment is produced by changes in both the aerodynamic force and the moment arm. The change in the aerodynamic force is mainly due to the change in angle of attack. The change in the moment arm is mainly due to the change in the mean stroke angle and deviation angle, and the deviation angle plays a more important role than the mean stroke angle in changing the moment arm (note that change in deviation angle implies variation in the position of the aerodynamic stroke plane with respect to the anatomical stroke plane). This is unlike the case of fruitflies correcting pitch perturbations in steady free flight, where they produce pitching moment mainly by changes in mean stroke angle. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Morphological traits can be highly variable over time in a particular geographical area. Different selective pressures shape those traits, which is crucial in evolutionary biology. Among these traits, insect wing morphometry has already been widely used to describe phenotypic variability at the inter-specific level. On the contrary, fewer studies have focused on intra-specific wing morphometric variability. Yet, such investigations are relevant to study potential convergences of variation that could highlight micro-evolutionary processes. The recent sampling and sequencing of three solitary bees of the genus Melitta across their entire species range provides an excellent opportunity to jointly analyse genetic and morphometric variability. In the present study, we first aim to analyse the spatial distribution of the wing shape and centroid size (used as a proxy for body size) variability. Secondly, we aim to test different potential predictors of this variability at both the intra- and inter-population levels, which includes genetic variability, but also geographic locations and distances, elevation, annual mean temperature and precipitation. The comparison of spatial distribution of intra-population morphometric diversity does not reveal any convergent pattern between species, thus undermining the assumption of a potential local and selective adaptation at the population level. Regarding intra-specific wing shape differentiation, our results reveal that some tested predictors, such as geographic and genetic distances, are associated with a significant correlation for some species. However, none of these predictors are systematically identified for the three species as an important factor that could explain the intra-specific morphometric variability. As a conclusion, for the three solitary bee species and at the scale of this study, our results clearly tend to discard the assumption of the existence of a common pattern of intra-specific signal/structure within the intra-specific wing shape and body size variability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Analysing historic DNA from museum specimens offers the unique opportunity to study the molecular systematics and phylogenetics of rare and possibly extinct taxa. In the Hawaiian fauna, the hawkmoth, Hyles calida calida, occurs on several of the main islands and is quite frequent, whereas Hyles c. hawaiiensis is restricted to the Island of Hawaii where it appears to be very rare. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences shows that Hyles c. hawaiiensis differs from the nominotypical subspecies by an average p-distance of 2.8%, which is of a similar order of magnitude to that found between other species of Hyles, suggesting that Hyles c. hawaiiensis should perhaps be awarded species status, although more data are required for a formal taxonomic revision. Given the rarity of this taxon, these analyses should be undertaken urgently so that conservation measures can be implemented before it becomes extinct. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Twenty-nine cDNAs encoding Ras-like family small GTPases (RSGs) were cloned and sequenced from Nilaparvata lugens. Twenty-eight proteins are described here: 3 from Rho, 2 from Ras, 9 from Arf and 14 from Rabs. These RSGs from N.lugens have five conserved G-loop motifs and displayed a higher degree of sequence conservation with orthologues from insects. RT-qPCR analysis revealed NlRSGs expressed at all life stages and the highest expression was observed in hemolymph, gut or wing for most of NlRSGs. RNAi demonstrated that eighteen NlRSGs play a crucial role in nymphal development. Nymphs with silenced NlRSGs failed to molt, eclosion or development arrest. The qRT-PCR analysis verified the correlation between mortality and the down-regulation of the target genes. The expression level of nuclear receptors, Kr-h1, Hr3, FTZ-F1 and E93 involved in 20E and JH signal pathway was impacted in nymphs with silenced twelve NlRSGs individually. The expression of two halloween genes, Cyp314a1 and Cyp315a1 involved in ecdysone synthesis, decreased in nymphs with silenced NlSar1 or NlArf1. Cyp307a1 increased in nymphs with silenced NlArf6. In N.lugens with silenced NlSRβ, NlSar1 and NlRab2 at 9th day individually, 0.0% eclosion rate and almost 100.0% mortality was demonstrated. Further analysis showed NlSRβ could be served as a candidate target for dsRNA-based pesticides for N.lugens control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Castniid moths (Lepidoptera: Castniidae) display a butterfly-like reproductive behavior, i.e., they use visual stimuli for mate location and females have apparently lost their pheromone glands in an evolutionary context. In this paper we report for the first time the identification of three new compounds, namely n-octadecyl acetate, (Z)-9-octadecenyl acetate and (E,Z)-2,13-octadecadienyl acetate, in males of the Castniid Palm Borer, Paysandisia archon, which could be involved in its short-range courtship behavior, and also shed light on recent controversies on the sexual behavior of the species. The compounds are produced in a ring-shaped gland of the male terminalia and have occasionally been detected in very minor amounts (ng) in ovipositor extracts of females, but only while mating or just after copulation. We also report that males use the already known (E,Z)-2,13-octadecadienol to mark their territory by rubbing their midlegs against the upper side of nearby leaves, especially palm leaves. This compound, produced in large amounts, is mostly concentrated in the midleg basitarsi and its maximum production is detected on the sexually mature 1-day-old specimens. In addition, analysis of male wings extracts confirms the presence of Z,E and E,E-farnesals, which are mostly produced in the median band of hindwings of 48–53 h-old insects. The biological significance of farnesals in this species is unknown. Our results point out that the chemical communication of P. archon relies mostly on males, which appear to bear all chemical burden in this respect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is likely to result in an increased frequency of extreme fire events, including more large-extent wildfires. The effects of fire extent on post-fire faunal recovery are poorly understood. Effects on invertebrate detritivores are of particular interest due to their functional importance in litter breakdown. We asked if distance from fire edge affected the composition and morphological traits of a key group of large invertebrate detritivores: cockroaches (Blattodea) 6 years after fire. We used six replicate transects in herb-rich foothill habitat in areas that were severely burnt during the 2009 Black Saturday fires, north-east of Melbourne, Australia. Transects extended from unburnt controls up to 5 km into large extent burns. Habitat variables were measured and cockroach abundances were recorded using artificial habitats comprised of stacked egg trays. Cockroach morphological traits were recorded in the laboratory. Multivariate generalized linear models revealed that habitats varied with transect, but not distance into the burn, suggesting recovery of habitat features relevant to cockroaches. Distance from burn did not affect the species richness or abundance of cockroaches, but both richness and abundance increased with bark and litter cover and decreased at lower temperatures. Cockroach assemblage composition responded significantly to distance into burn, transect and habitat variables, although only Platyzosteria similis was negatively associated with distance into the burn. Fourth corner models including traits did not provide greater predictive power than models including only species abundances and environmental variables. Wing presence, which was associated with smaller body size, did not affect site occupancy. Although species traits did not predict cockroach responses, our work shows that distance into a fire, a surrogate for fire extent, continued to be an important determinant of post-fire assemblages 6 years after fire. An increase in large-extent fires may reduce the recolonization potential of some cockroach species, potentially limiting their functional importance in litter breakdown. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rare backflow (negative wall-shear stress) events have recently been found and quantified in the near-wall region of canonical wall-bounded turbulent flows. Although their existence and correlation with large-scale events have been established beyond numerical and measurement technique uncertainties, their occurrence at numerically high Reynolds numbers is still rare (less than 1 per thousand and 1 per million at the wall and beyond the viscous sublayer, respectively). To better quantify these rare events, the turbulent boundary layer developing over the suction side of a wing section, experiencing an increasing adverse pressure gradient (APG) without separation along its chordc, is considered in the present work. We find that the backflow level of 0.06% documented in turbulent channels and zero-pressure-gradient (ZPG) turbulent boundary layers is already exceeded on the suction side forx/c> 0.3, at friction Reynolds numbers three times lower, while close to the trailing edge the backflow level reaches 30%. Conditional analysis of extreme events indicates that for increasing Clauser pressure-gradient parameters (reaching β ≃ 35), the flow reaches a state in which the extreme events are more likely aligned with or against the freestream, and that the otherwise strong spanwise component of the wall-shear stress reduces towards the vicinity of the trailing edge. Backflow events subjected to moderate up to strong APG conditions (0.6 < β < 4.1) exhibit an average width of Δz+ ≃ 20, and an average lifetime of Δt+ ≃ 2. This directly connects with the findings by Lenaers et al., and implies that there is a connection between high-Re ZPG and strong APG conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Butterflies of the South Asian and Australian genus Delias possess striking colours on the ventral wings that are presumed to serve as warning signals to predators. However, this has not been shown empirically. Here we experimentally tested whether the colours of one member of this diverse genus, Delias hyparete, function as aposematic signals. We constructed artificial paper models with either a faithful colour representation of D. hyparete, or with all of its colours converted to grey scale. We also produced models where single colours were left intact, while others were converted to grey-scale or removed entirely. We placed all model types simultaneously in the field, attached to a live mealworm, and measured relative attack rates at three separate field sites. Faithful models of D. hyparete, suffered the least amount of attacks, followed by grey-scale models with unaltered red patches, and by grey-scale models with unaltered yellow patches. We conclude that red and yellow colours function as warning signals. By mapping dorsal and ventral colouration onto a phylogeny of Delias, we observed that yellow and red colours appear almost exclusively on the ventral wing surfaces, and that basal lineages have mostly yellow, white, and black wings, whereas derived lineages contain red colour in addition to the other colours. Red appears to be, thus, a novel adaptive trait in this lineage of butterflies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The injury to the peripheral nervous system is common clinical problem especially injury to the wing is the most common in birds. The present study aimed to document the detailed features of the morphological structure and the innervations areas of the brachial plexus in indigenous duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus). A total of six mature indigenous ducks (three of them were male and three were female) were used in this study. After administering an anesthetic to the birds, the body cavities were opened. The birds were fixed with formaldehyde after draining of the blood. The nerves of the brachial plexus were dissected separately and photographed. The brachial plexus was formed by the union of the ventral branches of 14thand 15th cervical spinal nerve and 1st, 2nd and 3rd thoracic spinal nerves, which were confirmed by palpation and counting the cervical vertebrae. Present study revealed that few small and large branches originated from brachial plexus and innervated into the specific muscles and their adjacent structure. Five nerve roots formed three nerve trunks in the duck, which constitute the dorsal and ventral cords. The pectoral trunk and median-ulnar nerve originated from ventral cord, while dorsal cord gives axillary nerve continued as a radial nerve into the wing of duck. The axillary nerve innervated into to skin of the dorsal side of the wing and shoulder deltoideous muscles, coracobrachialis muscles and propatagiasis cervical muscles. The radial nerve innervated to the humuro-brachial and triceps muscles, extensor carpi radial and supinator muscles. The ulnar nerve innervated extensor aspect of joint, flexor carpi ulnar muscles and superficial flexor muscle. The median nerve innervated into the median surface of the brachial and metacarpal region, flexor carpi radial muscle, pronator teres muscles, superficial and profound digital flexor muscles. The general macroanatomical shape of the brachial plexus and the distribution of the nerves originating from this plexus displayed some differences from other birds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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• We propose a new rough fuzzy Weighted Influence Non-linear Gauge System (WINGS). • We integrate the WINGS with the Interpretative Structural Modeling Method (ISM). • Rough and fuzzy judgments are used to deal with uncertainties in untested ASSCM. • We reveal interrelationship by direction, intensity and strength of dependencies. • We present a case study to evaluate the elements impacting ASSCM. Environmental deterioration, the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russian-Ukrainian conflict had brought chronic and dramatic impacts on agricultural supply chain around the world, resulting in high inflation rates and unavoidable costs. In order to reduce the adverse impacts and achieve sustainability in agricultural supply chain, it's necessary to scientifically explore composite indicators interlinked with agricultural sustainable supply chain management (ASSCM). The current study developed an integrated rough-fuzzy WINGS-ISM method to reveal the hierarchal and causal structure of indicators. It is found that environmental legislation, regulation, licensing, and government subsidies are the main drivers of ASSCM. Specifically, the government can guide the sustainable development of ASSCM by regulating the business environment. The financial support needs to be enlarged to optimize the structure in science and technology of ASSCM. Moreover, corporates and organizations are highly motivated by the increasing awareness of social responsibility and sustainability consciousness to improve the economic performance and achieve the ASSCM goals. A comparative analysis is proposed to illustrate the practicality and reliability of the results obtained from the proposed method, which can be utilized as a reference in ASSCM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wings of Matsucoccus pini males were studied. Using light and scanning electron microscopes, both sides of the wing membrane, dorsal and ventral, were examined. The presence of only one vein in the common stem was confirmed by the cross-section, namely the radius. The elements regarded as subcostal and medial veins were not confirmed as veins. On the dorsal side of the wings, a cluster of campaniform sensilla is shown for the first time in the family Matsucoccidae, through SEM, and two additional sensilla were found on the ventral side. There was a lack of alar setae, microtrichia as well as pterostigma. This is the second cross-section of the wing among scale insects. We propose the following nomenclature for the wings in the family Matsucoccidae: subcostal thickening (sct), radius (R), median fold (med) and anal fold (af).

Background: Vector control tools are urgently needed to control malaria transmission in Africa. A native strain of Chromobacterium sp. from Burkina Faso was recently isolated and preliminarily named Chromobacterium anophelis sp. nov. IRSSSOUMB001. In bioassays, this bacterium showed a promising virulence against adult mosquitoes and reduces their blood feeding propensity and fecundity. The current study assessed the entomopathogenic effects of C. anophelis IRSSSOUMB001 on larval stages of mosquitoes, as well as its impacts on infected mosquitoes reproductive capacity and trans-generational effects., Methods: Virulence on larvae and interference with insemination were assayed by co-incubation with C. anophelis IRSSSOUMB001 at a range of 10 4 to 10 8  cfu/ml. Trans-generational effects were determined by measuring body size differences of progeny from infected vs. uninfected parent mosquitoes using wing size as a proxy., Results: Chromobacterium anophelis IRSSSOUMB001 killed larvae of the pyrethroid-resistant Anopheles coluzzii with LT 80 of ~ 1.75 ± 0.14 days at 10 8  cfu/ml in larval breeding trays. Reproductive success was reduced as a measure of insemination rate from 95 ± 1.99% to 21 ± 3.76% for the infected females. There was a difference in wing sizes between control and infected mosquito offsprings from 2.55 ± 0.17 mm to 2.1 ± 0.21 mm in infected females, and from 2.43 ± 0.13 mm to 1.99 ± 0.15 mm in infected males., Conclusions: This study showed that C. anophelis IRSSSOUMB001 was highly virulent against larvae of insecticide-resistant Anopheles coluzzii, and reduced both mosquito reproduction capacity and offspring fitness. Additional laboratory, field, safety and social acceptance studies are needed to draw firm conclusions about the practical utility of this bacterial strain for malaria vector control., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Natural surfaces with remarkable properties and functionality have become the focus of intense research. Heretofore, the natural antimicrobial properties of insect wings have inspired research into their applications. The wings of cicadas, butterflies, dragonflies, and damselflies have evolved phenomenal anti-biofouling and antimicrobial properties. These wings are covered by periodic topography ranging from highly ordered hexagonal arrays of nanopillars to intricate "Christmas-tree" like structures with the ability to kill microbes by physically rupturing the cell membrane. In contrast, the topography of honeybee wings has received less attention. The role topography plays in antibiofouling, and antimicrobial activity of honeybee wings has never been investigated. Here, through antimicrobial and electron microscopy studies, we showed that pristine honeybee wings displayed no microbes on the wing surface. Also, the wings displayed antimicrobial properties that disrupt microbial cells and inhibit their growth. The antimicrobial activities of the wings were extremely effective at inhibiting the growth of Gram-negative bacterial cells when compared to Gram-positive bacterial cells. The fore wing was effective at inhibiting the growth of Gram-negative bacteria compared to Gram-positive samples. Electron microscopy revealed that the wings were studded with an array of rough, sharp, and pointed pillars that were distributed on both the dorsal and ventral sides, which enhanced anti-biofouling and antimicrobial effects. Our findings demonstrate the potential benefits of incorporating honeybee wings nanopatterns into the design of antibacterial nanomaterials which can be translated into countless applications in healthcare and industry., Competing Interests: Conflicts of interest: The authors declare that they have no competing interests., (© 2023 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press.)

The epidemiological importance of Chagas disease vectors largely depends on their spreading ability and adaptation to domestic habitats. Triatoma patagonica is a secondary vector of Chagas disease endemic of Argentina, and it has been found colonizing domiciles and most commonly peridomiciliary structures in several Argentine provinces and morphological variation along its distribution range have been described. To asses if population differentiation represents geographic variants or true biological species, multiple genetic and phenotypic approaches and laboratory cross-breeding were performed in T. patagonica peridomestic populations. Analyses of chromatic variation of forewings, their size and the content of C-heterochromatin on chromosomes revealed that populations are structured following a North-South latitudinal variation. Cytochrome c oxidase I mitochondrial gene (COI) nucleotide analysis showed a mean genetic distance of 5.2% between the most distant populations. The cross-breeding experiments suggest a partial reproductive isolation between some populations with 40% of couples not laying eggs and low hatching efficiency. Our findings reveal phenotypic and genetic variations that suggest an incipient differentiation processes among T. patagonica populations with a pronounced phenotypic and genetic divergence between the most distant populations. The population differentiation here reported is probably related to differential environmental conditions and it could reflect the occurrence of an incipient speciation process in T. patagonica. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we report the discovery of non-plumage soft tissues in Confuciusornis, a basal beaked bird from the Early Cretaceous Jehol Biota in northeastern China. Various soft tissues are visualized and interpreted through the use of laser-stimulated fluorescence, providing much novel anatomical information about this early bird, specifically reticulate scales covering the feet, and the well-developed and robust pro- and postpatagium. We also include a direct comparison between the forelimb soft tissues of Confuciusornis and modern avian patagia. Furthermore, apparently large, fleshy phalangeal pads are preserved on the feet. The reticulate scales, robust phalangeal pads as well as the highly recurved pedal claws strongly support Confuciusornis as an arboreal bird. Reticulate scales are more rounded than scutate scales and do not overlap, thus allowing for more flexibility in the toe. The extent of the pro- and postpatagium and the robust primary feather rachises are evidence that Confuciusornis was capable of powered flight, contrary to previous reports suggesting otherwise. A unique avian wing shape is also reconstructed based on plumage preserved. These soft tissues combined indicate an arboreal bird with the capacity for short-term (non-migratory) flight, and suggest that, although primitive, Confuciusornis already possessed many relatively advanced avian anatomical characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Functional diversity is the variability in the functional roles carried out by species within ecosystems. Changes in the environment can affect this component of biodiversity and can, in turn, affect different processes, including some ecosystem services. This study aimed to determine the effect of forest loss on species richness, abundance and functional diversity of Neotropical bats. To this end, we identified six landscapes with increasing loss of forest cover in the Huasteca region of the state of Hidalgo, Mexico. We captured bats in each landscape using mist nets, and calculated functional diversity indices (functional richness and functional evenness) along with species richness and abundance. We analyzed these measures in terms of percent forest cover. We captured 906 bats (Phyllostomidae and Mormoopidae), including 10 genera and 12 species. Species richness, abundance and functional richness per night are positively related with forest cover. Generalized linear models show that species richness, abundance and functional richness per night are significantly related with forest cover, while seasonality had an effect on abundance and functional richness. Neither forest cover nor season had a significant effect on functional evenness. All these findings were consistent across three spatial scales (1, 3 and 5 km radius around sampling sites). The decrease in species, abundance and functional richness of bats with forest loss may have implications for the ecological processes they carry out such as seed dispersal, pollination and insect predation, among others. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diversity amongst the different populations is one of the problems in the control of medically important mosquitoes. Wing morphometry was used to identify within-species variation amongst some populations of Aedes aegypti in three areas of Lagos State, Nigeria. Ten landmarks on the right wing of adult female Ae. aegypti mosquitoes were digitized using TPSdig software. Relative distances of the veins and interpoints were calculated as well as the Euclidean distances based on these relative distances. In three (50%) of the interpoints, the relative distances were significant (P<0.05) to both the Brown–Forsythe F ratio and Welch ANOVA. The highest Euclidean distance of 7.738 was between Ebute Metta 2 and Badagry; the lowest of 4.426 was between Ikorodu and Ebute Metta 2. The distance between Ebute Metta 1 and Ebute Metta 2 was 5.867, which is more than the distance between Ebute Metta 2 and Ikorodu. Three groups of Ae. aegypti were identified, and the differences in lengths and interpoints observed on the wing veins suggest a possible morphological divergence amongst populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Within the large order of bats, sexual size dimorphism measured by forearm length and body mass is often female-biased. Several studies have explained this through the effects on load carrying during pregnancy, intrasexual competition, as well as the fecundity and thermoregulation advantages of increased female body size. We hypothesized that wing shape should differ along with size and be under variable selection pressure in a species where there are large differences in flight behaviour. We tested whether load carrying, sex differential migration, or reproductive advantages of large females affect size and wing shape dimorphism in the common noctule (Nyctalus noctula), in which females are typically larger than males and only females migrate long distances each year. We tested for univariate and multivariate size and shape dimorphism using data sets derived from wing photos and biometric data collected during pre-migratory spring captures in Switzerland. Females had forearms that are on average 1% longer than males and are 1% heavier than males after emerging from hibernation, but we found no sex differences in other size, shape, or other functional characters in any wing parameters during this pre-migratory period. Female-biased size dimorphism without wing shape differences indicates that reproductive advantages of big mothers are most likely responsible for sexual dimorphism in this species, not load compensation or shape differences favouring aerodynamic efficiency during pregnancy or migration. Despite large behavioural and ecological sex differences, morphology associated with a specialized feeding niche may limit potential dimorphism in narrow-winged bats such as common noctules and the dramatic differences in migratory behaviour may then be accomplished through plasticity in wing kinematics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The flower-visiting behaviors of pollinator species are affected not only by flower traits but also by cues of predators and resident pollinators. There is extensive research into the effects of predator cues and resident pollinators on the flower-visiting behaviors of bee pollinators. However, there is relatively little research into their effects on butterfly pollinators probably because of the difficulty in observing a large number of butterfly pollination events. We conducted a dual choice experiment using artificial flowers under semi-natural conditions in the butterfly pavilion at Tama Zoological Park to examine the effects of the presence of a dead mantis and resident butterflies have on the flower-visiting behavior of several butterfly species. From 173 hours of recorded video, we observed 3235 visitations by 16 butterfly species. Statistical analysis showed that (1) butterflies avoided visiting flowers occupied by a dead mantis, (2) butterflies avoided resident butterflies that were larger than the visitor, and (3) butterflies showed greater avoidance of a predator when the predator was present together with the resident butterfly than when the predator was located on the opposite flower of the resident. Finally, we discuss the similarities and differences in behavioral responses of butterfly pollinators and bees. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structural coloration variability was investigated in two Blue butterfly species that are common in Hungary. The males of Polyommatus icarus (Common Blue) and Plebejus argus (Silver-studded Blue) use their blue wing coloration for conspecific recognition. Despite living in the same type of habitat, these two species display differences in prezygotic mating strategy: the males of P. icarus are patrolling, while P. argus males have sedentary behavior. Therefore, the species-specific photonic nanoarchitecture, which is the source of the structural coloration, may have been subjected to different evolutionary effects. Despite the increasing interest in photonic nanoarchitectures of biological origin, there is a lack of studies focused on the biological variability of structural coloration that examine a statistically relevant number of individuals from the same species. To investigate possible structural color variation within the same species in populations separated by large geographical distances, climatic differences, or applied experimental conditions, one has to be able to compare these variations to the normal biological variability within a single population. The structural coloration of the four wings of 25 male individuals (100 samples for each species) was measured and compared using different light-collecting setups: perpendicular and with an integrating sphere. Significant differences were found in the near UV wavelength region that are perceptible by these polyommatine butterflies but are invisible to human observers. The differences are attributed to the differences in the photonic nanoarchitecture in the scales of these butterflies. Differences in the intensity of structural coloration were also observed and were tentatively attributed to the different prezygotic mating strategies of these insects. Despite the optical complexity of the scale covered butterfly wings, for sufficiently large sample batches, the averaged normal incidence measurements and the averaged measurements using an integrating sphere are in agreement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aerodynamically economical flight is steady and level. The high-amplitude flapping and bounding flight style of many small birds departs considerably from any aerodynamic or purely mechanical optimum. Further, many large birds adopt a flap-glide flight style in cruising flight which is not consistent with purely aerodynamic economy. Here, an account is made for such strategies by noting a well-described, general, physiological cost parameter of muscle: the cost of activation. Small birds, with brief downstrokes, experience disproportionately high costs due to muscle activation for power during contraction as opposed to work. Bounding flight may be an adaptation to modulate mean aerodynamic force production in response to (1) physiological pressure to extend the duration of downstroke to reduce power demands during contraction; (2) the prevention of a low-speed downstroke due to the geometric constraints of producing thrust; (3) an aerodynamic cost to flapping with very low lift coefficients. In contrast, flap-gliding birds, which tend to be larger, adopt a strategy that reduces the physiological cost of work due both to activation and contraction efficiency. Flap-gliding allows, despite constraints to modulation of aerodynamic force lever-arm, (1) adoption of moderately large wing-stroke amplitudes to achieve suitable muscle strains, thereby reducing the activation costs for work; (2) reasonably quick downstrokes, enabling muscle contraction at efficient velocities, while being (3) prevented from very slow weight-supporting upstrokes due to the cost of performing ‘negative’ muscle work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The production of large numbers of males needed for a sustainable sterile insect technique (SIT) control program requires significant developmental and operational costs. This may constitute a significant economic barrier to the installation of large scale rearing facilities in countries that are undergoing a transition from being largely dependent on insecticide use to be in a position to integrate the SIT against Aedes albopictus. Alternative options available for those countries could be to rely on outsourcing of sterile males from a foreign supplier, or for one centralised facility to produce mosquitoes for several countries, thus increasing the efficiency of the mass-rearing effort. However, demonstration of strain compatibility is a prerequisite for the export of mosquitoes for transborder SIT applications. Here, we compared mating compatibility among Ae. albopictus populations originating from three islands of the South Western Indian Ocean, and assessed both insemination rates and egg fertility in all possible cross-mating combinations. Furthermore, competitiveness between irradiated and non-irradiated males from the three studied strains, and the subsequent effect on female fertility were also examined. Although morphometric analysis of wing shapes suggested phenoptypic differences between Ae. albopictus strains, perfect reproductive compatibility between them was observed. Furthermore, irradiated males from the different islands demonstrated similar levels of competitiveness and induced sterility when confronted with fertile males from any of the other island populations tested. In conclusion, despite the evidence of inter-strain differences based on male wing morphology, collectively, our results provide a new set of expectations for the use of a single candidate strain of mass-reared sterile males for area-wide scale application of SIT against Ae. albopictus populations in different islands across the South Western Indian Ocean. Cross-mating competitiveness tests such as those applied here are necessary to assess the quality of mass reared strains for the trans-border application of sterile male release programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In facultative partial migrants some individuals in a population are migratory and others are resident and individuals decide each year anew which strategy to choose. While the proportion of birds migrating is in part determined by environmental conditions and competitive abilities, the timing of individual departure and behaviours on route are little understood. Individuals encounter different environmental conditions when migrating earlier or later. Based on cost/ benefit considerations we tested whether behaviours on route were affected by time constraints, personality and/or age in a partially migrating population of Blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus). We captured female Blue tits on migration at the Southern tip of Sweden during early, peak and late migration and measured latency to feed in an unfamiliar environment, exploration of a novel object and hesitation to feed beside a novel object (neophobia). Lean birds and birds with long wings started feeding earlier when released into the cage indicating that foraging decisions were mainly determined by energetic needs (lean and large birds). However, juveniles commenced feeding later with progression of the migratory season in concordance with predictions about personality effects. Furthermore, lean birds started to explore earlier than birds with larger fat reserves again indicating an effect of maintaining threshold energy reserves. Moreover, late migrating juveniles, started to explore earlier than early migrating juveniles possibly due to time constraints to find high-quality foraging patches or a suitable winter home. Finally, neophobia did not change over the migratory season indicating that this behaviour is not compromised by time constraints. The results overall indicate that decisions on route are mainly governed by energetic requirements and current needs to learn about the environment and only to a small extent by differences in personality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper deals with a problem of developing, defining and applying budgetary indicators of engineering constructions, and particularly bridges. It is a draft of a Model for development of budgetary indicators of bridge construction in the pre-investment phase of a project. It could, according to classification and evaluation in terms of criteria and search for the most accurate valuation unit of complex structures such as bridge construction, serve investors and public administration authorities for rapid investment planning and professional control of completed buildings. Such a unique tool has never been developed in the Czech Republic so far. Bridges as buildings complement any landscape and in the outer parts of cities, they often establish a viewpoint. They belong among important parts of any highway or expressway. Without them, it would be impossible to establish grade-separated crossings with other roads - roads, railway lines or sections of rivers. They are also important in overcoming obstacles of natural and artificial character such as deep valleys, lakes, or steep mountainsides. The aim of the paper is to analyse a current state of the valuation of bridges and the subsequent establishment and validation of the Model for the development of budgetary indicators of the bridge construction.

Near ground operation of airplanes represents a critical and an important aerodynamic practical problem due to the wing-ground collision. The aerodynamic characteristics of the wing are subjected to dramatic changes due to the flow field interference with the ground. In the present paper, the wing-ground collision was investigated experimentally and numerically. The investigation involved a series of wind tunnel measurements of a 2-D wing model having NACA4412 airfoil section. An experimental set up has been designed and constructed to simulate the collision phenomena in a low speed wind tunnel. The investigations were carried out at different Reynolds numbers ranging from 105 to 4×105, various model heights to chord ratios, H/C ranging from 0.1 to 1, and different angles of attack ranging from -4o to 20o. Numerical simulation of the wing-ground collision has been carried out using FLUENT software. The results of the numerical simulation have been validated by comparison with previous and recent experimental data and it was within acceptable agreement. The results have shown that the aerodynamic characteristics are considerably influenced when the wing is close to the ground, mainly at angles of attacks 4o to 8o. The take off and landing speeds are found to be very influencing parameters on the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing in collision status, mainly the lift.

No doubt, if one comes to search for the truth, he/she will find it. It is a journey to the inner self translated as simple yet complex developments of narrative symbols and myths. We are transported into a magical world of subtle senses and meanings where one has to learn the different traces of history that we are transuded into. There are two sides of this mirroring that we find in those two tales. The first one takes us, metaphorically, in front of the tree of life, the source of knowledge that is accessible only by the pure hearted. The connectionthrough the person of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu Omikami can only point out where the light does deviate all of us. The second one is an imperative message, as a meditation, the moment that we disconnect from our minds. Those two parts can feed us with the knowledge of the human beings, in order to fill the love core connected with the feeling coming out from the experience of these two tales. You can take a magical tour into the world of the mirrors that we are revealed here and try to gaze into the future, searching for meanings that perhaps you have never thought about. Either way it is a positive approach towards knowing who we really are.

Despite interest in the relationship between fluctuating asymmetry (FA), immune response and ecological factors in insects, little data are available from wild populations. In this study we measured FA and immune response in 370 wild-caught male bush-crickets, Metrioptera roeseli, from 20 experimentally introduced populations in southern-central Sweden. Individuals with more-symmetric wings had a higher immune response as measured by the cellular encapsulation of a surgically-implanted nylon monofilament. However, we found no relationship between measures of FA in other organs (i.e. tibia and maxillary palp) and immune response, suggesting that this pattern may reflect differing selection pressures.