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New initiatives have provided educators with exciting resources to develop local, regional, and national infrastructures. Many new public and private sector collaborations have been the result, and this conference explores the implications of these changes for the education profession. The profession has focused on the various ethical issues concerned with the expansion of the Internet, and with questions of ownership of the medium, censorship, and cost of access. As the importance of telecommunications in education gains recognition, it also gains momentum. These proceedings portray the projects, discoveries, experiments, and experiences gained by educators throughout the world. Veronica, Archie, World Wide Web (WWW), file transfer protocol (FTP), wide area information servers (WAIS), Gopher, Mosaic, and many other network searching tools are presented in the workshops and demonstration sessions. Four broad themes are discussed: communication, community, collaboration, and connection. Information is exchanged about new technologies and trends, research issues, and how communications technology can most effectively support educational reform. Two novelties are introduced in this conference: an open channel for juried submissions, resulting in several contributions of academically excellent papers; and a public debate, which closes the conference. (MAS)

The Supreme Court has consistently defended the power of secondary school officials in their role as enforcer, even in cases of expression. In spite of the trends of the late 1960s and early 1970s and the movement in the schools toward more freedoms for students and a more contemporary curriculum--including journalism as a legitimate high school course--the Court has continued its insistence that the wisdom of professional educators was better than the Court's wisdom. Many concerned with First Amendment rights for secondary school students believed the 1969 decision of "Tinker v. Des Moines Independent School District" was a signal that high school journalists would experience a new-found freedom of expression, free of censorship. However, "Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier" reaffirmed the Court's commitment to the structure of the public school system in the United States, and the authority of its officials. Issues raised in such court cases are school issues more than they are First Amendment issues, and these issues win when pitted against students' First Amendment rights. (Contains 81 notes.) (RS)

An objective assessment of the politically correct movement on college campuses casts much doubt on the positions advanced by conservative critics in the popular media. Through "Time,""Newsweek,""The New Republic,""Nightline," and other media, conservative critics, backed by well-established right-wing organizations, have painted a portrait of the issue of political correctness as being an organized movement that threatens free speech. Drawing on a body of "outrageous" cases, they have viewed political correctness and multiculturalism as a conspiracy threatening the very foundation of American society. However, more sensible evaluations of political correctness on college campuses show that it does not hold a position of unchallenged authority. In fact, it seems unlikely that there is much, if any, organized effort to program students with politically correct ideas. What there is, to quote one student, is an attempt to recognize "that everyone, regardless of sex, age, race, religion, handicap (or political affiliation, you will be surprised to know) has a right to an opinion." Political correctness will remain a relevant topic for debate for some time to come. (Contains 51 notes.) (TB)

The Mass Media section of the proceedings of this conference of journalism historians contains the following 10 papers: "Broadcast News, Cable TV and the Telcos: A Historical Examination of the Rhetorical Forces Affecting the Electronic Distribution of Information to the American Television Public" (John E. Craft and Frances R. Matera); "WAKR Radio: A History" (David Ritchey and Thomas Miles); "The Missouri State Council of Defense: Boosting Morale and Voluntary Action during World War II" (Caryl A. Cooper); "Censoring Comics: The Implementation and Enforcement of the 1954 Comics Code" (Amy Kiste Nyberg); "The Media Pool System--A Legal and Policy History" (David B. White); "'One' Magazine: Gay America's First Journalistic Voice" (Rodger Streitmatter); "When Surveys Failed: What Can Be Learned from the 1936 'Literary Digest' and 1948 Truman versus Dewey Election Polling Fiascos" (Maury M. Breecher); "Toward a Theory of Constructivism, Based upon the Lives of Two Women Photographers" (Kathryn S. Egan); "Defining the Modern Indian: Lee Harkins and 'The American Indian'" (John M. Coward); and "Pagans or Paragons? Imagery and Ideology in the Portrayals of Native Americans in the Prestige Press" (Mary Ann Weston). (RS)

To assist journalism educators and legislators who wish to initiate passage of anti-Hazelwood laws, this paper reports on the first stage of a research project on nationwide efforts at getting state legislation passed to override the 1988 Supreme Court Hazelwood School District vs. Kuhlmeier decision. The laws of five states (Massachusetts, California, Colorado, Kansas, and Iowa) which have been successful in passing legislation to override the l988 Hazelwood decision are compared and contrasted in the paper. The paper also offers a 1-page paradigm that summarizes the features of each law. Future research is called for that would examine data from the five states that have passed such laws to determine if they have indeed reduced the incidence of student press censorship. An appendix provides the complete text of all enacted student free speech legislation and a copy of the Student Press Law Center Model Legislation. (NH)

A study examined censorship and self-censorship of the high-school press. Surveys were sent in April 1992 to student newspaper editors and advisers at 1,040 randomly selected public high schools across the United States. A total of 323 editors and 270 advisers responded. Respondents were compared to each other and to those in the sample obtained in a 1990 study of advisers. Results indicated that: (1) differences among respondents in the surveys were not statistically significant; (2) faculty advisers and student editors agreed about the extent of adviser pressure, prior review and prior restraint, and the amount of student intimidation, deference, and self-censorship taking place at their school; (3) journalistic practices were more likely than controversial topics to be the cause of problems; (4) the two characteristics most related to differences of opinion for both advisers and editors overall were both newspaper characteristics--source and type of publication policy; (5) the smaller the school, the more likely was the editor to get into trouble for printing controversial stories and the more likely the adviser was to have stressed that controversial stories not run; (6) advisers and editors agreed with the "Hazelwood" ruling; and (7) prior restraint, intimidation, and self-censorship did not cause student journalists to stay away from controversial topics. Findings suggest that debate over causes of the "bland, innocuous" scholastic press is built on faulty assumptions, including the assumption that overt censorship and intimidation have had a devastating effect upon the content of the student press. (Contains 20 endnotes and 8 tables.) (RS)

During the period from 1630 to 1690, the Puritans were not arbitrary oppressors of free speech. They believed that public expression was valuable and necessary. They restricted only ungodly print or speeches by heretics and blasphemers. Within the boundaries of godly expression, Puritans encouraged discussion for the better enlightenment of mankind. The rule that free expression should be a blessing to society occasionally backfired as people such as John Palmer accused them of silencing free speech. However, Palmer was supporting a governor whose basis for governing was the squelching of political expression and the silencing of Puritan religious ministry. Puritans did restrict the press enough so that Quaker prints which lashed out against New England had to be printed in Philadelphia or London. However, the Puritans allowed the press at Harvard College, which they controlled, to publish other opposition pieces. Although historians sometimes jump to the conclusion that the Puritans had no interest in free expression, the Puritans' printed works show toleration and encouragement of free speech and free press within certain limits. So long as free speech did not abridge religion, free expression was both a treasure and a prize, a tool for learning and a means of debate. (Sixty-seven notes are included.) (RS)

In May 1993, representatives of anti-censorship feminists convened at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York to overturn the myths that censorship is good for women, that women want censorship, and that those who support censorship speak for women. Participants at the convention discussed four major themes: the current panic over sexual perversion, the anti-pornography movement among certain feminists, the need for free speech in matters regarding sex, and the struggle for free speech. Lisa Duggan, historian, journalist, and Brown University professor, discussed the history of moral reform movements from temperance to anti-pornography and explains how they have not promoted the interests of women. Speakers denounced the legal theories developed by Catharine MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin that excuse censorship and treat the First Amendment as irrelevant. The anti-censorship feminists argued that the banning of pornography amounts to the control of women's images and the suppression of women's search for their own sexuality. (JD)

A teacher has found a historical study of a newspaper's doublespeak to be consistently effective when it is used in an American studies classroom as a teaching model. As the Ku Klux Klan evolved in the 1920s, so did the Pekin, Illinois, "Daily Times's" deceptive coverage of the Klan. Doublespeak in news reports and editorials was used to deceive readers; doublespeak distorted events, hid purposes, and evaded results. During the first year (1922) of the Klan's ownership of the "Daily Times," the paper used euphemism, jargon and gobbledygook to exaggerate the Klan's popularity and to mislead the community about the Klan's legitimacy and authority. In January 1924, the paper's doublespeak took a new turn. In a series of columns published on the editorial page under the banner of"Klan Komments," several Klan beliefs were announced. The paper used doublespeak in its reporting of the murder trial of D. C. Stephenson, a former Klan leader. The Klan sold the newspaper a few months after the Stephenson case. During the time the Klan owned the paper, censorship was used to omit some reports of Klan-related events. Doublespeak made the Klan's opposition to immigrants, strikes, and bootleggers look legitimate and popular. Doublespeak made the Klan leaders represent order and authority. But even doublespeak did not work in late 1925. When the Klan sold the paper in 1926, however, it still looked like a newspaper. (RS)

Attempts to suppress and even censor various texts used by English teachers often are led by members of fundamentalist Christian groups. These activists charge educators with depreciating Christian moral values and instigating a religion of "secular humanism" in the schools. Various examples of recent legal cases show how prominent the fundamentalist activists are in the text censorship controversy. Censorship cases, though they have tended to be decided in favor of school districts, are disruptive to the schools nonetheless and often are concluded only after numerous appeals. Violence has even erupted in several cases of strong public reaction. Although it has been estimated that fundamentalist and Christian organizations only account for 25% of all cases, much of their effect stems from teachers who do not use certain texts or strategies because they fear public objection or even legal actions against them. The overall agenda of Christian groups dealing with educational issues involves attacks on a wide array of techniques, themes, and topics currently being used or developed. It also appears that many of these groups work interdependently and have devised a sophisticated network to advance their objectives. For teachers to ward off these grassroots attacks, three steps should be taken: (1) contractual agreements should be made giving teachers the right to select and use materials relevant and appropriate to their students; (2) teachers and school boards should write rationales for the classroom materials they select and define methods for handling complaints; and (3) entire communities must keep lines of communication open and remain alert for fundamentalist candidates for school boards. A "Selection Rationale for Classroom Materials" form developed by Ellen Brinkley for teachers and a "Citizen's Request for Reconsideration of a Work" form developed for school districts by the National Council of Teachers of English are included. (HB)

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the 1988 Supreme Court decision on the attitudes and behavioral intentions of high school principals and publication advisers. In the Hazelwood School District versus Kuhlmeier decision, the court held that, as the publisher of a school newspaper, a public school may exercise substantial control over contents of student articles, whenever this action is reasonably consistent with the legitimate educational mission of the school. Questionnaires were returned by 178 principals and 145 school newspaper advisers in the state of New Jersey, for a response rate of 39% and 33% respectively. Significant differences were found between administrators and advisers, as well as between public and private high schools. Results indicated that: (1) principals accepted their censorship role by expressing the right to control school publications and exercising prior restraint; (2) principals supported the Hazelwood decision, students' right to freedom of expression, and were more satisfied with the quality of their schools' publications than were advisers; and (3) 82.47% of the public high school employees supported the Hazelwood decision and prior restraint, while only 17.53% of the private school employees did. (Fourteen references and three appendixes of data are attached.) (RS)

Public support for individual and media rights of freedom of expression was examined in this study. Data were analyzed from a national probability sample of 1,508 adults, with items pertaining to freedom of expression formed into two indexes: media rights and individual rights. These indexes were used as dependent variables to test hypotheses based on the demographic variables of sex, age, education, and political orientation. Results indicated that: (1) men supported both rights significantly more than women, with greater disparity for media rights; (2) support for freedom of expression was higher at the left side of the political spectrum than the right; (3) as education increased, support for rights tended to increase, while increasing age seemed to be associated with decreasing support; and (4) three-way interactions between sex, education, and age and between political orientation, education, and age showed relationships to support for expressive rights. (Three tables and three figures of data are included; 26 references are attached.) (Author/RS)

The International Media section of the proceedings contains the following 13 papers: "Text and Context: A Case Study of International News Discourse" (Shujen Wang); "The Future of Public Service Broadcasting in Japan and the U.K.: A Comparative Analysis" (Roya Akhavan-Majid); "Reinventing Freedom of the Press: The Search for a Post-Soviet Model in the New Russia" (Lisa W. Holstein); "Global TV News in Developing Countries: CNN's Expansion to Egypt" (Joe S. Foote and Hussein Amin); "Source Credibility during the Gulf War: A Q-Study of Rural and Urban Saudi Arabian Citizens" (Safran S. Al-Makaty and others); "Journalistic Excellence in Two Different Political Systems: A Comparative Study of American and Chinese News Reporting Awards" (Louisa Ha); "Children of the Himalayas: The Message of Chipko: 'Travel of Information' in Chamoli, India" (Jawahara K. Saidullah); "Vaccination Messages on Nigerian Broadcasting Stations: Does Content Really Matter?" (Folu Ogundimu); "The Role of Women Journalists in Philippine Political Change" (Richard Shafer and Suzanna Hornig); "Anti-Americanism in South Korea: The Mass Media and the Politics of Signification" (Jae-kyoung Lee); "Development Journalism in an Asian Setting: A Study of Depthnews" (Floyd J. McKay); "The Legal Foundations of Mass Media Regulation in Guyana: A Commonwealth Caribbean Case Study" (M. Kent Sidel); and "Propaganda in the U.S. and Taiwan Television News: A Comparative Study of Political Affairs" (Li-Ning Huang). (HB)

The Television section of the proceedings contains the following 10 papers: "Financial Commitment and Performance in Local Television News: Applying the Industrial Organizational Model" (Angela Powers); "The Relationship between Censorship and the Emotional and Critical Tone of Television News Coverage of the Persian Gulf War" (John E. Newhagen); "The Dynamics of Television Program Audience Accumulation" (Guy E. Lometti and others); "Development Orientation of Domestic and International News on the CNN World Report" (Chun-il Park and others); "How Cable Television Network Programming Strategies Affect Time Spent Viewing" (Beth E. Barnes); "The Rodney King Tape and the Viewer's Role in the Rituals of TV News--Seeing Was Believing" (Sandra Haarsager); "Video News Releases: Breaching the Covenant with Viewers" (Travis Linn); "Filling the Gap: Congress Increases Its Video as TV News Cuts Budgets" (Floyd J. McKay); "The Ceremonial of Television News Sweeps: 'Series Sleaze' and 'Series Stress'" (Matthew C. Ehrlich); and "Behind the Bleeps: Organizational Processes and the Roles of the Network Television Censors" (John Weispfenning). (RS)

The Media History section of the proceedings contains the following nine papers: "'This Is a Test': The Evolution of the Emergency Broadcast System" (Larry G. Burkum); "Radio Homemaker Programming: Old Time Radio's Ingredient for Attracting Women Listeners" (J. Steven Smethers and Lee Jolliffe); "Her Amplified Voice: Gender, War Propaganda and Canadian Motherhood, 1939-1943" (Barbara M. Freeman); "The Attempt to Censor Racist Speech: The NAACP's Protests against 'The Birth of a Nation,' 1915-1916" (Hosoon Chang); "A Look at Factors Leading to the Murder of a Broadcast Journalist" (Mary K. Sparks); "Timothy H. O'Sullivan: His Role in the Great Surveys of the American West" (John Anderson); "Fact or Fiction? The Mystery of Magazine Content Quality in 1905" (Louise Williams Hermanson); "Global Television and Global Community: The Utopian Rhetoric of Satellite Communications Policy, 1961-63" (Michael Curtin); and "Get Thee to the Kitchen! The First Wave of the Women's Movement in the 19th Century Political Cartoons of 'Puck,''Punchinello,' and 'Harper's Weekly'" (Elizabeth Fakazis). (RS)

A study examined school, publication, and adviser characteristics most often associated with certain types of autonomy found in high school newspaper programs. From a compilation of all high schools in the United States, 434 schools were selected at random. Each school was sent a coded questionnaire concerning the school, the newspaper (if the school had one), who approved copy prior to publication, and the educational, professional, and advising experience of the advisers. Two hundred and thirty questionnaires were returned, for a response rate of 53%. Results indicated that: (1) adviser characteristics (notably experience and affiliation with professional associations) were clearly associated with newspaper autonomy; (2) papers supported through advertising were better able to run stories on birth control, abortion, sex, and stories critical of school administration; (3) papers which made a profit were less likely to be screened by administrators; and (4) profitable papers had fewer stories killed by administrators and were less likely to allow teachers to screen stories about themselves. Findings suggest that journalism teachers should place greater emphasis on teaching about the economics of newspapers, as well as about their editorial operations, and that advisers concerned about free expression should carefully consider the role of administrative subsidies for the papers they advise. (Three tables of data and 18 notes are included; the questionnaire is attached.) (Author/RS)

This paper presents a literature review examining research that addresses the issue of freedom of expression as it relates to instructional decision-making for teachers in K-12 grades. The paper proposes to connect two sub-fields in speech communication: instructional communication and freedom of expression studies. In surveying the research, however, the paper examines numerous sources outside these fields. The paper is categorized according to five major types of research that appear: "surveys of court opinions,""critiques of court opinions,""trends in restricting freedom of expression,""types of restrictions of teachers' freedom of expression," and "what teachers should know about freedom of expression." The paper concludes that research in this area is hampered by the lack of communication among the various disciplines, such as law and speech communication. Furthermore, the paper finds that studies examining how teachers' freedom of expression enhances or detracts from teaching effectiveness have not been undertaken. Contains 64 references. (Author/RS)

"Politically correct" has become an all-purpose pejorative epithet conflating and condemning a number of initiatives, such as affirmative action in hiring and admissions, multicultural education, broadening the "canon" of classical texts to include women and minority groups, protests against unpopular, usually conservative ideas, and changing vocabularies for representing particular groups. Kenneth Burke's elaboration of five distinct variations on the meaning of the simple word "dog" suggests a method by which the complex issues surrounding the term "politically correct" might be analyzed. Thus a, systematic application of Burke's notion of "Dramatism" can be made to the politically correct controversy. There are five different canine categories, then, concerning the notion of politically correct: (1) the hegemonic dog, emphasizing the different terminologies used by advocates of both sides; (2) the ancestral dog, which decenters the individual canine-hominid bond by placing it in a broader collective-tribal context; (3) the antinomial dog, which emerges from basic contradictions inherent in the controversy; (4) the hierarchical dog, especially the dog as breeder, representing Dramatism at its most formal level; and (5) the "multivocal" dog. This final category, suggested by Burke's presentation of the four rungs on the educational ladder, is the culmination of the mature learner, who treats different texts as voices in a dialogue. Texts, then, become more like equipment for living and thinking, rather than merely medicinal pills producing health. (Contains 19 references.) (HB)

Articles of The Bill of Rights, although comprising the fundamental principles of American society, are often opposed by many people on varying grounds. For example, many people support physical abuses by law enforcement officials, even though they might violate constitutional rights. The First Amendment, simple in original wording, has resulted in a vast amount of court cases and legislative action. However, a wide variety of examples demonstrates that the principle of freedom of expression apparently has very little public support. Government often operates with a powerful motivation toward secrecy, such as in the operation of foreign affairs and in the suppression of news about the Gulf War. News organizations also showed during the Gulf War a tendency to avoid expressions of public outrage, and most did not protest government censorship, which the public overwhelmingly supported. In the schools, freedom of expression gives way to thought control. Various groups work to prohibit controversial texts. Students are forced to conform to dress and speech codes, and are often harassed if they try to exercise civil freedoms. Colleges are ruled by attempts to impose restrictions on speech not deemed politically correct, but the anti-politically correct advocates are also guilty of hypocritical intolerance. Colleges also participate in acts of secrecy. The schools and government both exhibit hostility toward freedom of expression, but this is a general tendency throughout society. It may be that, in today's America, dearly holding to the precepts of the First Amendment has become a thing of the past. (HB)

Teaching freedom of speech to undergraduates is a difficult task, in part as a result of the challenging history of free expression in the United States. The difficulty is compounded by the need to teach the topic, in contrast to indoctrinating the students in an ideology of free speech. The Bill of Rights, and specifically the First Amendment, appear simple and clear, but they are not as transparent as some have suggested. The First Amendment has been hard to interpret from its inception, and its meaning continues to evolve through numerous court cases. Despite claims to the contrary, American society has frequently failed to demonstrate a commitment to freedom of expression. Considering the sporadic and inconsistent history of free expression in America, teaching such a history is arduous. In light of this context, teachers of free expression must avoid the temptation to ground freedom of speech solely in historical claims. Laws such as the First Amendment can be reinterpreted by each succeeding generation, according to Thomas Jefferson. Accordingly, freedom of speech should be oriented more toward the future. Further, teachers should concentrate on the core principles justifying freedom of expression, while avoiding the various peripheral issues. Recently, for example, the legal code surrounding the First Amendment has expanded rapidly, rivaling that of the Internal Revenue Service. It is vital that teachers recognize the significance of First Amendment principles with the objective that students might be trained to avoid the intolerance that has often marked the American social scene. (Forty-eight footnotes are included.) (HB)