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Examines questions about the development of the self asked in regards to Black children during the last 40 years. Focuses on traditional approaches to the self-system (awareness of individual's own characteristics and attributes); sex role and racial referents in identity processes; the process of understanding the identity development of Black youth; and policy considerations. (RJC)

Explores recent social psychological theorizing on the predicaments of minority identity. A social identity theory, which reveals unjustified assumptions about minority dependence on and conformity with majority values, is contrasted with a conflict perspective in which majority values are the object of both conflict and negotiation. 37 references. (Author/CB)

Examines research and theory relative to the process of moral judgment development within the family environment. Analyzes the family's unique contribution to the development of moral judgment, the role of modeling by family members, and the ideal familial environment. Implications for moral education are addressed. (KO)

A Black U.S. sociologist views the issue of marginality in early socialization and career development. Analyzes his life experiences to provide data through which a dialectical model of marginalization and human development can be constructed. Concludes that emphasis upon either marginality or mainstreaming is a function of the complex interaction of life course. (KO)

Comments on two opening articles by Parham ("Cycles of Psychological Nigrescence") and Helms ("Considering Some Methodological Issues in Racial Identity Counseling Research"). Suggests that the connotations of victimization and racial conflict in the concept of "psychological Nigrescence" are obsolete. Offers 11 propositions in search of a comprehensive racial identity development theory. (TE)

Describes complex patterns of social interaction in sexual harassment arena as cause for its difficult eradication on the Oklahoma State University campus despite 1982 establishment of sexual harassment policy; specifically citing convergence of primary drama (victim discomfort in aggressive action taking resulting from sex role definition) and secondary drama (administration discomfort in punishing colleagues) as cause. (CM)

A five-year longitudinal study was conducted on 11 beginning secondary teachers to investigate their reference group socialization. The study attempted to generate a grounded theory of ways in which teachers adapt the teacher role to meet their own personal needs. (JN)

Examines the relationship between self-evaluation and social comparison in adolescent males during their last two years of high school. The question is empirically examined in two realms that capture primary features of the adolescent transition: physical transformation and social role reorganization. (Author/RH)

An anxiety scale was administered to fifth- and eighth-grade students in West Germany immediately after and three years after placement in a high, low, or middle school track based on achievement. Findings from this investigation are related to reference group theory. (Authors/CJ)

Explored the relationships between network variables and level of self-valuing within a group of women who demonstrated interest in careers traditionally associated with males. The major focus was on the differential importance of male-referenced versus female-referenced variables in predicting level of self-regard within such a group. (Author/PAS)

Investigated the relationship between public and private self-consciousness and social and personal aspects of identity. Public self-consciousness correlated more strongly with social than with personal aspects of identity, and private self-consciousness correlated more strongly with personal than with social aspects. Discusses implications for the psychology of identity. (Author)

A large survey supported the hypotheses that tolerance--measured by dogmatism, liberalism, conservatism, and authoritarianism--was higher among older than younger undergraduates; and that tolerance was higher in students who had shifted reference groups from home town to college. The role of college environment was discussed. (GDC)

Longitudinal investigation into teenagers' reference groups revealed a consistency as to which kind of issue prompts peer orientation and which question results in parent consultation. The most important finding indicates a shift from parent to peer orientation over the past 16 years. (Author/DB)

Theory and research concerning early adolescent self-concept and self-esteem indicate that: (1) many early adolescents' cognitive changes affect dramatically the way they see and evaluate themselves; (2) a variety of new significant others are involved in early adolescent self-concept; and (3) changes taking place during adolescence are not as disruptive as previously believed. (CJ)

A look back at the first year of the Language and Cultures Network for Australian Universities (LCNAU) highlights how great the need for such a network has been within the sector and how important LCNAU's role will be in ensuring the future of languages teaching and research in universities and beyond. LCNAU was established in early 2011 as part of a two-year project funded by the Australian Learning and Teaching Council (ALTC, now administered by the Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations, DEEWR). The highlight of LCNAU's activities in 2011 was the inaugural National Languages Colloquium. LCNAU's role in language advocacy is vital and is underpinned by a set of principles which the LCNAU Project Team and Reference Group drafted for discussion at the Colloquium. These principles, in their final form, will guide the future activities of LCNAU. Indeed, the primary focus of LCNAU for 2012 is its establishment as a legal entity with the principles as a foundation. While the project to establish LCNAU is funded for two years, the goal is to create a network which is firmly embedded in the tertiary sector and is widely recognised as the peak body for all languages in the university system at a national level.

Points out characteristics of young adolescents, including mood swings, concern with self, and reliance on peers as a reference group. For English translation, see EJ 242 849. (Author/RH)

Authors Joshua Baran and Susan Rothbaum discuss why young people join cults; involvement with spiritual groups as part of the developmental search for identity; the comforting familiarity and security offered by authoritarian spiritual groups; and the ways institutions and counselors can deal with students drawn to or leaving such groups. (AYC)

There are two kinds of references in administrative hires. The most customary is the "on list" references which a candidate asks one to provide. The second kind of reference is the "off list" variety, of which there are two types. Typical is the call one receives from an acquaintance at the hiring institution asking for the "dirt" on one's colleague because his candidacy has just become public there. However well intentioned, that approach generally degenerates into gossip mongering, and the quality of the information seldom elevates beyond hearsay. A better version of that approach, however, is when search committees, hiring officers, and consultants reach out to "trusted sources" who have not been suggested by the candidate. When done in an organized way--with the comments chronicled in writing and attributed--those sorts of references can be exceptionally valuable. In this article, the author offers an advice to the providers of the reference on how they should think about their responsibilities in the search process--to the candidate, to the hiring institution, and to oneself.

Points out characteristics of young adolescents, including mood swings, concern with self, and reliance on peers as a reference group. (Author/RH)

This study examines the influence of social contexts on the decision to either complete or leave the first vocational education and training (VET) position among young German apprentices—an aspect that has received little attention in dropout research. In particular, the role of three reference groups—parents, friends and classmates at vocational school—in shaping this decision is examined. Using longitudinal data from the German National Educational Panel Study, the analysis addresses two key research questions: (1) Which reference groups are associated with the dropout decision? (2) And how do they influence the decision-making process? For this purpose, the study primarily investigates apprentices' perceptions of the normative expectations and career ambitions of these groups, and compares the occupational achievements of apprentices and their parents. Two main results are found: (a) Parents and friends have a normative function; apprentices are more likely to complete their VET successfully if they believe that their parents and friends expect them to do so. (b) Both classmates and parents serve a comparative function; if apprentices perceive high career ambitions among their classmates, this may be intimidating and increase the risk of dropping out—in favor of switching to another training occupation. In addition, having parents with a higher occupational status seems to encourage apprentices to pursue a more demanding career path in the case of a change in training occupation. This study supports the notion that a multitude of actors contribute to the success of VET. Therefore, it could be beneficial for career guidance and counseling efforts to extend beyond individual counseling and consider actors who, although indirectly involved in VET, act as important reference groups for apprentices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract This study examines the influence of social contexts on the decision to either complete or leave the first vocational education and training (VET) position among young German apprentices—an aspect that has received little attention in dropout research. In particular, the role of three reference groups—parents, friends and classmates at vocational school—in shaping this decision is examined. Using longitudinal data from the German National Educational Panel Study, the analysis addresses two key research questions: (1) Which reference groups are associated with the dropout decision? (2) And how do they influence the decision-making process? For this purpose, the study primarily investigates apprentices’ perceptions of the normative expectations and career ambitions of these groups, and compares the occupational achievements of apprentices and their parents. Two main results are found: (a) Parents and friends have a normative function; apprentices are more likely to complete their VET successfully if they believe that their parents and friends expect them to do so. (b) Both classmates and parents serve a comparative function; if apprentices perceive high career ambitions among their classmates, this may be intimidating and increase the risk of dropping out—in favor of switching to another training occupation. In addition, having parents with a higher occupational status seems to encourage apprentices to pursue a more demanding career path in the case of a change in training occupation. This study supports the notion that a multitude of actors contribute to the success of VET. Therefore, it could be beneficial for career guidance and counseling efforts to extend beyond individual counseling and consider actors who, although indirectly involved in VET, act as important reference groups for apprentices.

Humans, as social groups, are always interacting with each other to meet their needs. Today, this interaction has encountered with many challenges, with one being the extreme preference of individual and personal interests and ignoring collective ones. In Iranian society, this problem has a long history, but now it has become acute. The main purpose of this research is to investigate the causes of preference of individual over collective interests in everyday life of citizens in Tehran. The survey sample size was estimated to be 385 people through Cochran's formula, and the required data was collected through multi-stage cluster sampling method from regions 1, 7, 11, 14 and 20 of Tehran in the winter of 2019. The explanation was also based on the concepts taken from culture-base theories of Parsons (affective neutrality), Merton (reference group and innovation) and Homans (stimulus proposition) and their synthesis. For this purpose, bivariate and multivariate tests were used. The findings showed that even in the traumatic situation of Covid-19, when according to Durkheim's theories, people should always prioritize collective interests over individual ones; a considerable number of respondents (94%) prioritized individual interests. They prefer collective interests, with market place shrewdness attitude and culture playing a major role. Specifically, it became clear that the higher the emotional neutrality, higher the tendency to reference groups, tendency to innovation, and tendency to stimulus, the preference of individual interests over collective interests.

Economic growth may not improve society if people compare their achievements to others in relative ways that detract from well‐being. But who are these others and what economic dimensions matter? This research applied a p‐value ranking approach from genetics research to tackle the issue of reference group selection. Data from over 30,000 British and American adults were analyzed in nearly 800 multi‐level models. Over 300 measures of reference group socio‐economic status and eight measures of well‐being were used. The results showed that reference groups based on geography and age, perceptions of those in "society," and rank wealth were most consistently associated with well‐being. Measures less consistently associated with well‐being used averages, medians, and proportions in states and local authorities without demographic sub‐groups. Future researchers should consider the consistently associated dimensions of reference groups when constructing relative measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Engagement and partnership with consumers and communities throughout research processes produces high quality research meeting community needs and promoting translation of research into improved policy and practice. Partnership is critical in research involving Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander people (First Nations Peoples) to ensure cultural safety. We present lessons from the design, implementation and progress of the National Health and Medical Research Council funded INtravenous iron polymaltose for First Nations Australian patients with high FERRitin levels on hemodialysis (INFERR) clinical trial. Main body: The trial was designed to understand the benefits and harms of iron therapy in First Nations Australians on haemodialysis with anaemia and hyperferritinaemia. The lack of evidence for treatment was discussed with patients who were potential participants. A key element ensuring safe conduct of the INFERR trial was the establishment of the Indigenous Reference Groups (IRGs) comprising of dialysis patients based in the Top End of Australia and Central Australia. Two IRGs were needed based on advice from First Nations communities and researchers/academics on the project regarding local cultural differences and approaches to trial conduct. The IRGs underpin culturally safe trial conduct by providing input into study materials and translating study findings into effective messages and policies for First Nations dialysis patients. Throughout the trial conduct, the IRGs' role has developed to provide key mechanisms for advice and guidance regarding research conduct both in this study and more broadly. Support provided to the IRGs by trial First Nations Research Officers and independent First Nations researchers/academics who simplify research concepts is critical. The IRGs have developed feedback documents and processes to participants, stakeholders, and the renal units. They guarantee culturally safe advice for embedding findings from the trial into clinical practice guidelines ensuring evidence-based approaches in managing anaemia in haemodialysis patients with hyperferritinaemia. Conclusion: Active consumer and community partnership is critical in research conduct to ensure research impact. Strong partnership with consumers in the INFERR clinical trial has demonstrated that First Nations Consumers will engage in research they understand, that addresses health priorities for them and where they feel respected, listened to, and empowered to achieve change. Plain English summary: In this paper, we present the importance of actively involving consumers in the planning, implementation and conduct of research using the example of a clinical trial among Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Australians (First Nations Australians) who have kidney disease and are currently receiving haemodialysis. The study assesses how safe and effective it is for people on dialysis to receive iron given through the vein during dialysis when they have anaemia and high levels of a blood test called ferritin, a test used routinely to measure iron levels. Two consumer reference groups of First Nations patients on dialysis, one based in the Top End of Australia and the other based in Central Australia, are supported by First Nations Research Officers and Research Academics to make sure that the research is performed in a way that involves, respects and values First Nations participation, culture, and knowledge. Active consumer and community partnership in this study has supported robust research governance processes which we believe are crucial for knowledge translation to have a positive impact for patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Various smartphone brands with varying prices and specifications continue to emerge and develop in society. This study aims to determine the effect caused by product differentiation and reference groups on consumer purchasing decisions. This research is a quantitative research with product differentiation and reference groups as independent variables and consumer purchasing decisions as dependent variables. This study uses questionnaire data collection techniques and obtained 68 respondents, namely students of D-IV Marketing Management Study Department of Business Administration Malang State Polytechnic who use Xiaomi smartphones. Data analysis used was multiple linear regressions. The results show that partially product differentiation variables have a positive and significant effect on purchasing decisions, besides that the reference group variables also have a positive and significant effect on purchasing decisions. So from that it can be concluded that differentiation and reference groups can influence consumer purchasing decisions by increasing the superiority and value of the product and increasing the company's image to attract consumer attention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In his life, a person performs many different roles in different social groups. In each of them, we perform a role that we combine with our other roles. In the most significant reference group, the family, these can be: mother, father, son, daughter and others. This group is not only the most significant for each person, but also the one that accompanies him throughout his life. The changes that occur over time are related to a change in the role and its members. The other significant reference groups are the friend group, the interest groups, the team at work. In each of them, we fulfill a given role, which we reconcile with our other roles. Along with them, there is another role that is very different in nature, essence and purpose from the others. This is the role of the consumer. The main purpose of the consumer role in human life is to satisfy our needs and wants by participating in a process of exchange. The goal of this article is to make a brief review of the theoretical concepts of the consumer, refracted through the prism of different scientific fields, which will serve to build a more multi-layered appearance of this concept. The evolution in the understanding of the concept of consumer has been traced, presented through a historical review of theoretical concepts and research. Modern interpretations of the role of the consumer in the conditions of a market economy are discussed. The model of a consumer in modern society is about an individual who has needs, seeking to satisfy them in a rational way, so as to improve his quality of life. The goal of organizations is to know the needs of consumers by providing them with the most suitable product. An overview of the theoretical statements about the concept of consumer from the positions of an interdisciplinary approach is made. The study of the consumer is subject of various scientific fields. This also allows for its deeper understanding. For one of the scientific fields, it is the focus of all the activities and that is marketing. According to marketing philosophy, people have different needs. This is also the starting point for marketing - the existence of needs that are subject to satisfaction. Placing the consumer and his needs at the heart of marketing requires that they must be studied. This can be achieved through marketing research. With the wide distribution of the Internet, prerequisites were created for the implementation of online marketing research. From the point of view of marketing, the consumer exhibits a certain behavior that is expressed in the decisions and actions he takes in the selection, purchase and way of using a given product. Studying the needs and behaviors of the target consumer will help marketers create more effective marketing strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To gain a more nuanced understanding of social mobility in a globalized world, in this article I suggest studying the link between social and spatial mobility by exploring social positions in relation to international migration. While migration is often portrayed as a gateway to social mobility, migration scholars have highlighted that transnational spaces and intersecting inequalities may shape social mobility in complex ways. However, little is known about the subjective experiences of spatial and social mobility. Therefore, based on a study of subjective social positions among people who have relocated to Germany, I discuss the implications for a research design that enables social scientists to assess social mobility in contexts of international migration and to explore the spatial dimension in shaping social mobility trajectories. Specifically, I will argue for linking empirical findings from narrative interviews with concepts of space, capitals, and social comparison as well as transnational and intersectional theories. As I will show, this way of inquiring into the social-spatial mobility nexus allows for investigating the complex ways in which spaces affect social mobility, and thus provides a promising gateway to better understand social mobility as a process shaped by both time and space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Private Higher Education Institutions (PHEIs) play a crucial role in South Africa as there is a growing need for higher education. However, these institutions face numerous challenges in the current tough economic climate. This qualitative research aimed to investigate the influence of reference groups on consumer’s decision-making process when choosing a PHEI. The literature review revealed very little research has been conducted on how reference groups influence consumer’s decision-making when choosing a PHEI. This addresses a significant gap that the research aimed to analyse. This study used a qualitative research design in the form of 23 semi-structured interviews. The target population of this study included students enrolled in three PHEIs and a non-probability snowball sampling technique was used to draw the sample or until data saturation had been reached per institution. A thematic analysis was conducted to identify broad themes and patterns, after which categories and codes were created. ATLAS.ti 22 supported the qualitative data analysis process. The findings indicated that reference groups, especially family members, played crucial decision-making roles. The findings can inform and lead to more effective marketing strategies and policies.

This article explores the idea that consumer influencers can shape reference group meanings in social media. Through a survey in which over 5,000 participants provided open-ended reference group associations for 25 major brands, the authors find that social media influencers can either strengthen or change brand reference group associations. Specifically, the typicality of the influencer (relative to a brand's stereotypical consumer) can shape ideas about the perceived homogeneity of the brand's consumers, which ultimately influences the strength and tightness of brand associations. This research combines seminal theories regarding cultural and sociological influences on branding, concepts relating to stereotype change, and a multi-method approach to assess new digital flows of cultural meaning from consumer influencers to brands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increased conspicuous consumption motivated by status-seeking behavior can undermine the gains in well-being derived from economic growth. Using expenditure surveys from Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and Uruguay, we assess visible consumption motivated by status seeking behaviour, analyzing different hypotheses about the role of externalities driven by social comparisons and income inequality. Specifically, we provide evidence for the relevance of different reference groups, assessing comparisons with richer (Veblen effects), poorer and similar profile groups (Duesenberry effects). We show that individuals are affected by multiple reference groups. Regarding between-group inequality, we find that individuals mainly seek to differentiate themselves from poorer groups, rather than imitating richer ones. In all cases, average reference group income of similar profile individuals is negatively related to visible consumption. Meanwhile, within-reference group responses are relevant in Argentina, Brazil and Mexico: increased visible goods consumption is associated with larger relative income gaps. In Argentina and Brazil, the sensitivity of visible goods expenditures to income is higher among households located above the reference threshold, which is consistent, again, with more affluent households trying to signal status by differentiating themselves from the most deprived group members. Meanwhile, in the case of Mexico, there is a symmetric response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reference groups can influence an individual's perceptions of social and gender norms which can affect health beliefs, behaviours, and outcomes. This qualitative study in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo explored young women's and men's reference groups for relationship dynamics and family planning. Some reference groups and mechanisms of influence were common to relationship dynamics and family planning. Some exercised influence through certain mechanisms but not others. Understanding these dynamics can contribute to effective interventions which curtail intimate partner violence and increase access to voluntary uptake of family planning, both paramount to advancing the rights and health of women and girls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To gain a more nuanced understanding of social mobility in a globalized world, in this article I suggest studying the link between social and spatial mobility by exploring social positions in relation to international migration. While migration is often portrayed as a gateway to social mobility, migration scholars have highlighted that transnational spaces and intersecting inequalities may shape social mobility in complex ways. However, little is known about the subjective experiences of spatial and social mobility. Therefore, based on a study of subjective social positions among people who have relocated to Germany, I discuss the implications for a research design that enables social scientists to assess social mobility in contexts of international migration and to explore the spatial dimension in shaping social mobility trajectories. Specifically, I will argue for linking empirical findings from narrative interviews with concepts of space, capitals, and social comparison as well as transnational and intersectional theories. As I will show, this way of inquiring into the social-spatial mobility nexus allows for investigating the complex ways in which spaces affect social mobility, and thus provides a promising gateway to better understand social mobility as a process shaped by both time and space.

This project investigates emotionality by brands on social media. First, a field data set of over 200,000 text and images posts by brands across two major platforms is analyzed. Using recent automated text analysis (Study 1a) and computer vision methods (Studies 1b and 1c), the author provides initial documentation of a negative relationship between brand emotionality and status. Exploring this relationship further, in Studies 2, 3, and 4, the author finds that brands can leverage this association, reducing emotionality in brand communications to increase perceived brand status. This strategy is effective because reduced emotionality is associated with high-status communication norms, which evoke high-status reference groups. This finding is moderated by the status context of the brand (Study 2) and the product type (Study 4). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study aims to determine the role of reference groups on the awareness of university youth of the dangers of cyberbullying, by applying an electronic questionnaire to a random sample of students from the Faculty of Social Work at Helwan University who are enrolled in the fourth year. The sample size reached (407) individuals. The study sought to determine the role of reference groups on the awareness of university youth of the educational, psychological, and social risks of cyberbullying. The results of the study indicated that the role of reference groups in the awareness of university youth of the dangers of cyberbullying is high and its hypotheses are confirmed. The study concluded that reference groups play an important role in influencing their members, either positively or negatively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]