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GB virus C (GBV-C) is a lymphotropic virus with a low level or non-existent replication in the liver. The interaction between HIV-1 and GBV-C apparently reduces the progression of HIV-1 infection to AIDS and improves the quality of life of HIV-1 infected individuals. A cross-sectional study was established to determine the possible effect of HIV-1/GBV-C coinfection on HIV-1 viral load and CD4

The present study investigated the frequencies of rs1800450 (MBL ⁎B, G>A), rs1800451 (MBL ⁎C, G>A), and rs5030737 (MBL ⁎D, C>T) polymorphisms in exon 1 of the MBL2 gene among patients with chronic viral hepatitis. Blood samples from patients infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV; n=65), hepatitis C virus (HCV; n=92), and a noninfected control group (n=300) were investigated. The presence of polymorphisms was detected using a real-time polymerase chain reaction to correlate with liver disease pathogenesis and fibrosis staging according to the Metavir classification. The genotypic and allelic frequencies showed no significant differences between the groups, but patients with active HBV and the wild AA genotype presented a positive correlation between increased transaminase and HBV DNA levels and the presence of mild to moderate fibrosis. Patients with HCV and the wild AA genotype presented mild inflammation and higher HCV RNA levels, although the same association was not observed for the fibrosis scores. The results suggest that the mutations in exon 1 of the MBL2 gene do not contribute directly to the clinical and laboratory features of HCV and HBV infections, but further studies should be performed to confirm whether the wild AA genotype has indirect effect on disease progression.

We investigated the association between hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotypes and host cytokine gene polymorphisms and serum cytokine levels in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Serum IL-6, TNF-α, IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-10, and IL-17A levels were measured in 67 HCV patients (68.2% genotype 1 [G1]) and 47 healthy controls. The HCV patients had higher IL-6, IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-10, and IL-17A levels than the controls. HCV G1 patients had higher IL-2 and IFN-γ levels than G2 patients. The -174IL6G>C, -308TNFαG>A, and -1082IL10A>G variants were similarly distributed in both groups. However, HCV patients with the -174IL6GC variant had higher IL-2 and IFN-γ levels than patients with the GG and CC variants. Additionally, HCV patients with the -308TNFαGG genotype had higher IL-17A levels than patients with the AG genotype, whereas patients with the -1082IL10GG variant had higher IL-6 levels than patients with the AA and AG variants. A significant proportion of HCV patients had high levels of both IL-2 and IFN-γ. The subgroup of HCV patients with the G1/IL6CG/TNFαGG association displayed the highest proportions of high producers of IL-2 and IFN-γ whereas the subgroup with the G1/TNFαGG profile showed high proportions of high producers of IL-6 and IL-17A. HCV patients with other HCV/cytokine genotype associations showed no particular cytokine profile. Our results suggest that HCV genotype G1 and IL-6 and TNF-α polymorphisms have a clinically relevant influence on serum pro-inflammatory cytokine profile (IL-2 and IFN-γ) in HCV patients.

Cryptococcus neoformans is an important cause of morbidity in HIV-infected patients worldwide. In the northern region of Brazil, the prevalence of this infection is poorly known due to a lack of systematic investigations. This study aimed to determine the occurrence of cryptococcosis by detecting antigenaemia in HIV-infected patients in the State of Para, Brazil. A latex Cryptococcus antigen detection kit was used to test 418 serum samples from HIV-infected patients seen at two Infectious Disease Specialized Units in the State of Para. The C. neoformans antigenaemia prevalence was 2.6%, and titres reached 1:8. The cases occurred mainly in asymptomatic females, and 45% presented CD4(+) T lymphocyte counts of fewer than 200 cells/mm(3). These results show the importance of early C. neoformans antigenaemia detection to prevent fungal disease.

Objective. The present study investigated the prevalence of the IL-28B polymorphisms rs12979860 and rs8099917 in chronic hepatitis B patients from a case study in Eastern Amazonia.Methods. In total, 65 chronically infected HBV patients and 97 healthy subjects who were anti-HBc and anti-HBs positive (control group) were evaluated between May 2011 and December 2012. The groups of patients were designated as inactive carriers, chronic hepatitis without cirrhosis, and chronic hepatitis with cirrhosis based on clinical, pathological, biochemical, hematological, and virological variables. The patients were genotyped using quantitative real-time PCR.Results. The frequencies of the rs12979860 polymorphism were similar between the infected group (32.3% CC, 41.5% CT, and 26.2 TT) and the control population (35% CC, 47.4% CT, and 17.6% TT), and the frequencies of the rs8099917 polymorphism (7.7% GG, 35.4% GT, and 56.9% TT versus 7.2% GG, 35.1% GT, and 57.7% TT) were also similar in both groups. The associations between the rs12979860 and rs8099917 polymorphisms and the clinical manifestations were not statistically significant.Conclusion. In conclusion, these polymorphisms had a similar distribution between infected and control groups, indicating that they were not associated with susceptibility and the clinical evolution of hepatitis B in the examined population.

The present study investigated the frequencies of rs1800450 (MBL ⁎B, G>A), rs1800451 (MBL ⁎C, G>A), and rs5030737 (MBL ⁎D, C>T) polymorphisms in exon 1 of the MBL2 gene among patients with chronic viral hepatitis. Blood samples from patients infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV; n = 65), hepatitis C virus (HCV; n = 92), and a noninfected control group (n = 300) were investigated. The presence of polymorphisms was detected using a real-time polymerase chain reaction to correlate with liver disease pathogenesis and fibrosis staging according to the Metavir classification. The genotypic and allelic frequencies showed no significant differences between the groups, but patients with active HBV and the wild AA genotype presented a positive correlation between increased transaminase and HBV DNA levels and the presence of mild to moderate fibrosis. Patients with HCV and the wild AA genotype presented mild inflammation and higher HCV RNA levels, although the same association was not observed for the fibrosis scores. The results suggest that the mutations in exon 1 of the MBL2 gene do not contribute directly to the clinical and laboratory features of HCV and HBV infections, but further studies should be performed to confirm whether the wild AA genotype has indirect effect on disease progression.

Human T-lymphotropic virus 1, a member of the Retroviridae family, causes a neglected, silent, persistent infection affecting circa 5 to 10 million people around the world, with biology, immune pathology, clinical diseases, epidemiology, and laboratory issues still unsolved. Most of the infected subjects are asymptomatic, but severe clinical disorders appear as a neurodegenerative disease (HTLV-1 associated myelopathy—HAM) or a lymphoprolipherative disorder (Adult T Leukemia/Lymphoma—ATLL) and in other target organs of the human body. HTLV-1 infections are frequently asymptomatic, but there is a large spectrum of diseases that have been described along the years. The mechanisms by which the virus interacts with the host, the different modes of response of the host to the infection, and the immunogenic characteristics of the host are some of the interesting and unanswered questions that may direct the outcome of the disease. The most relevant published results dealing with the genetic variations of the host, the immune response to HTLV-1 infection, and the outcome of the infection are presented herein, including Human Leucocyte Antigen (HLA), Killer Immunoglobulin-like Receptors (KIR), interleukin 6, 10, 28, Fas and Fas ligand, IFN-gamma, TNF-A, and Mannose-binding lectin. In summary, there are still several unmet research needs in the field of useful biomarkers on HTLV-1 pathogenesis.

The present study assessed the phenotypic aspects of oral-cavity Candida albicans isolates from 300 HIV-1- positive patients, relating the most commonly investigated virulence factors (enzyme typing and germ-tube formation) to the most common morphotypes. The samples were seeded into specific media for isolation and subsequent identification using the automated Vitek 2 system. The following assays were performed for phenotypic characterization: morphotyping, germ-tube formation and enzyme typing. Out of 300 collected samples, 144 tested positive for yeasts of the Candida genus, 98 (32.7 %) of which were identified as C. albicans. The latter samples were attributed to seven different morphotypes; the three most common morphotypes were 7208 (49 %), 7308 (14.3 %) and 3208 (13.3 %). All of the C. albicans isolate samples formed germ tubes and produced the enzymes proteinase and phospholipase, with an activity classified as intermediate to high. Due to the identification of virulence factors among the analyzed samples, monitoring of HIV-1-positive patients colonized by different morphotypes must be established because these morphotypes are extremely pathogenic and can trigger severe fungal infections.

Setting Isoniazid (INH) is related to the development of hepatotoxicity in some patients. Objective To investigate the role of N-acetyl transferase 2 (NAT2) and cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) in the hepatotoxicity of patients treated with INH in an Amazonian Brazilian population. Design Patients undergoing anti-tuberculosis treatment were investigated. Hepatotoxicity was defined as an increase of more than three times the upper limit of normal in serum alanine aminotransferase levels after treatment. NAT2 genotypes were identified by sequencing, whereas CYP2E1 alleles were detected using polymerase chain reaction based methods. Results Of the 270 individuals included in the study, 18 (6.7%) developed drug-related hepatotoxicity. A high association was found between slow acetylators and hepatotoxicity, particularly with regard to allele *5. The adjusted risk of developing hepatotoxicity was significant in individuals carrying two slow acetylation alleles (P = 0.036, OR 3.05, 95%CI 1.07-8.64). In all of the CYP2E1 markers examined, wild homozygous genotypes were more prevalent in subjects with hepatotoxicity than in controls; however, the difference was not statistically significant. Joint evaluation of the genes revealed a high risk of developing hepatotoxicity in slow acetylators with CYP2E1 wild alleles (adjusted OR 4.26; 95%CI 1.47-12.37, P = 0.008). Conclusions Large-scale screening for NAT2 and CYP2E1 genotypes can prove useful in predicting the risk of adverse effects.

INTRODUCTION Leprosy often results in sensory and physical limitations. This study aimed to evaluate these limitations using a quantitative approach in leprosy patients in Belém (Pará, Brazil). METHODS This epidemiological, cross-sectional study measured the sensory impairment of smell and taste through the use of a questionnaire and evaluated activity limitations of daily life imposed by leprosy through the Screening of Activity Limitation and Safety Awareness (SALSA) Scale. Data were collected from 84 patients and associations between the degree of disability and clinical and epidemiological characteristics were assessed. RESULTS The majority of patients were men (64.3%), married (52.4%), age 31-40 years old (26.2%), had primary education (50%), and were independent laborers (36.9%). The multibacillary operational classification (81%), borderline clinical form (57.1%), and 0 degrees of physical disability (41.7%) were predominant. SALSA scores ranged from 17 to 59 points, and being without limitations was predominant (53.6%). The risk awareness score ranged from 0 to 8, with a score of 0 (no awareness of risk) being the most common (56%). Evaluation of smell and taste sensory sensitivities revealed that 70.2% did not experience these sensory changes. Patients with leprosy reactions were 7 times more likely to develop activity limitations, and those who had physical disabilities were approximately four times more likely to develop a clinical picture of activity limitations. CONCLUSIONS Most patients showed no sensory changes, but patients with leprosy reactions were significantly more likely to develop activity limitations. Finally, further studies should be performed, assessing a higher number of patients to confirm the present results.

Cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme polymorphisms seem to significantly influence the variability of the responses to certain antiretroviral drugs and their toxicity levels. The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of the CYP2B6 G516T polymorphism on hepatic, renal, immunological, and viral marker changes in HIV-1-positive patients receiving treatment in an ethnically diverse region of the Amazon.CYP2B6 G516T genotyping was performed by real-time PCR (RT-PCR) in samples from 185 patients. Urea, creatinine, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), CD4The polymorphic CYP2B6 G516T allele frequency was 0.36, which is different from the frequencies in other ethnic groups. The polymorphic genotype was associated with changes in the urea and ALT levels, although the median values were within the normal range. The TT genotype was also associated with significantly lower CD4The CYP2B6 G516T polymorphism seems to affect the response to efavirenz treatment by reducing CD4

Background: The identification of combinatorial antibodies against many different targets in oncology, autoimmune, inflammatory and infectious diseases has uncovered novel strategies to control and prevent diseases’ onset and progression, and represents the fastest growing market for the pharmaceutical industry. Phage Display has been successfully used in the identification of unknown targets, which combines shotgun approaches with high throughput selection schemes. Methods: This specific review covers many aspects of combinatorial phage display technology starting from antibody selection strategies to its redesign for application purposes. Emphasis is specifically directed to how these biotherapeutics function on specific targets with an interactome view, especially within complex diseases. Conclusion: Novel combinatorial antibodies will lead to improved interventions in cancer, autoimmune and infectious diseases; however, the very large genetic diversity associated with environmental variations highlight the importance of the personalized medicine using a system’s biology approach. Therefore, combined therapies are expected in the near future.

Human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) infection is a global public health problem, but, so far, there is no published information regarding the epidemiology of HIV-1 in Marajó Archipelago (Pará, Brazil).The present study reports the occurrence of infection by HIV-1 in four municipalities of the Marajó Island, Pará, Brazil.A total of 1877 samples were collected from volunteer blood donors (1296 women and 551 men) living in the municipalities of Anajás, Chaves, Portel and São Sebastião da Boa Vista. Information about risk behaviour assessment was obtained from a questionnaire. Plasma samples were tested for the presence of anti-HIV antibodies using serological tests. The infection was confirmed by nucleic acid amplification assays.Twelve samples were seropositive for HIV by ELISA. Western blot analysis showed four positive samples, eight indeterminate patterns and one found to be negative. Molecular analysis revealed three positive samples. Risk factors for HIV-1 infection included absence of condoms during sexual intercourse (41.3%, São Sebastião da Boa Vista), use of illicit drugs (5.8%, Anajás) and early initiation of sexual activities, from 10-15 years (30.7%).Although the study indicates a low HIV-1 prevalence in Marajó Island, some factors may increase the risk for HIV-1 and these include early sexual initiation, unprotected sexual intercourse and the use of illicit drugs.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient?fico e Tecnol?gico (CNPq), Minist?rio da Ci?ncia e Tecnologia (MCT), Programa de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cient?fico e Tecnol?gico (PADCT). Universidade Federal do Par?. Instituto de Ci?ncias Biol?gicas. Laborat?rio de Virologia. Bel?m, PA, Brasil. Universidade Federal do Par?. Instituto de Ci?ncias Biol?gicas. Laborat?rio de Virologia. Bel?m, PA, Brasil. Minist?rio da Sa?de. Secretaria de Vigil?ncia em Sa?de. Instituto Evandro Chagas. Ananindeua, PA, Brasil. Minist?rio da Sa?de. Secretaria de Vigil?ncia em Sa?de. Instituto Evandro Chagas. Ananindeua, PA, Brasil. Universidade Federal do Par?. Instituto de Ci?ncias Biol?gicas. Laborat?rio de Virologia. Bel?m, PA, Brasil. Universidade Federal do Par?. Instituto de Ci?ncias Biol?gicas. Laborat?rio de Virologia. Bel?m, PA, Brasil. Universidade Federal do Par?. Instituto de Ci?ncias Biol?gicas. Laborat?rio de Virologia. Bel?m, PA, Brasil. Universidade Federal do Par?. Instituto de Ci?ncias Biol?gicas. Laborat?rio de Virologia. Bel?m, PA, Brasil. Universidade Federal do Par?. Instituto de Ci?ncias Biol?gicas. Laborat?rio de Virologia. Bel?m, PA, Brasil. Pro- and anti-inflammatory markers (tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-a, TNF-b, interferon [IFN]-c, interleukin [IL]-6, IL-8, IL-10, and C-reactive protein [CRP]) were investigated in 80 patients infected with dengue viruses, 100 patients presenting with febrile illness but negative for dengue, and 99 healthy subjects. Immunoenzyme methods were used for quantitative assays in the plasma. Polymorphisms of TNF-a, TNF-b, IL-6, IL-8, and IL- 10 genes were assessed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-restriction fragment length polymorphism and allele-specific oligonucleotide (ASO)-PCR for the IFN-c. The highest mean serum levels of TNF-a, IFN-c, IL-8, and CRP were observed in dengue-positive individuals. TNF-b, IL-6, and IL-10 levels were significantly higher in the dengue-negative individuals. No cytokine expression pattern was evidenced according to virus serotype. Genotypic frequency distributions were statistically significant for the polymorphisms of TNF-a and IFN-c among positive, negative, and control dengue groups and IFN-c among groups DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, and controls. Modulation of cytokine expression and polymorphisms is a complex matter and needs further explanation considering the ethnic origins of the Brazilian population.

In this study, the prevalence, genotypic frequency, and risk factors for HCV infection in 768 patients infected with HIV were determined. Fifty-two (6.77 %) HIV-positive individuals had anti-HCV antibodies and 26 (3.39 %) had HCV-RNA. Genotyping results indicated that all RT-PCR samples from patients infected with HCV belonged to genotype 1. Multivariate analysis revealed an association of HIV-HCV coinfection with drug use and having received blood transfusions before 1994. The relatively low prevalence of HCV infection in the HIV-positive population in that region may be a consequence of the small number of drug users in the sample, despite a strong association between HCV infection and drug use.

FAS and FASLG genes are closely linked to the apoptosis mechanism of the immune system and several polymorphisms in these genes have been associated with susceptibility to diseases. The present study investigated the polymorphisms at positions −670 in the FAS gene, and −169 and −124 in the FASLG gene, among HTLV-1 infected subjects. Blood samples from HTLV infected subjects and seronegative individuals were collected, and polymorphisms were analyzed using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) followed by RFLP analysis using restriction endonucleases. The genotype frequencies of the FAS −670 polymorphism was the only one that showed a higher and significant prevalence of genotype −670GG among HTLV-1 infected subjects as compared to the control group (p=0.0160), but the genotype −670AA was more frequent among TSP/HAM patients as compared to the asymptomatic individuals (p=0.0005). TCD4+ and TCD8+ lymphocyte counts from HTLV infected and seronegative subjects, as well as the proviral load values, according to the status of symptomatic and asymptomatic infection carrying different genotypes were compared but showed no statistical significance. The present results suggest that FAS −670 polymorphism seems to be associated with susceptibility to HTLV-1 and may increase the chance to develop TSP/HAM among HTLV-1 infected persons.

The present study investigated the prevalence of infection by JC and BK polyomaviruses (JCV and BKV) in patients with chronic renal disease (CRD), kidney transplant recipients, and a control group of asymptomatic subjects. We tested a total of 295 urine samples. After DNA extraction, polymerase chain reaction assay was used to amplify a fragment of 173 bp of the polyomavirus T antigen, followed by analysis using the BamHI restriction endonuclease. Infection by polyomavirus was detected in 17.6% (52/295 subjects) of the subjects. Whereas 30.5% (18/59) of transplant recipients were infected, the frequency was only 22.4% (30/134) in the control subjects, and 3.9% (4/102) in the CRD group (all JCV). The vast majority of infections (88.9%; 16/18) in transplant recipients were of the BKV type, whereas this type was absent in CRD patients, and made up only 10.0% (3/30) of infections in the control group. The risk of BKV infection was 72 times greater in renal transplant patients than in asymptomatic subjects. The low frequency of infection found in CRD patients may have been related to elevated levels of urea excreted in the urine, together with reduced urine volume and cell content. These factors may combine to reduce viral load or inhibit amplification. The results of the study indicate a need for the routine screening for polyomavirus in pre- and post-transplant patients, as well as organ donors, considering that BKV infection has been associated with graft rejection in kidney transplants.

Regarding the importance of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) in protective immunity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and the functional role of IFNG +874T/A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the IFN-gamma production, the present study investigated the relationship of this genetic polymorphism with susceptibility to tuberculosis (TB). A total of 129 patients with pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB), 33 with extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB), and 156 control subjects were studied. Blood samples were drawn and plasma was used to measure IFN-gamma serum concentration by enzyme-linked immunoassay. DNA samples were extracted from leukocytes and used to investigate +874T/A polymorphism in IFNG gene using allele-specific oligonucleotide-polymerase chain reaction. An association between the presence of the allele +874A and the genotype +874AA with the active tuberculosis was found (p0.0001, 95% confidence interval = 1.64-3.22), at the same time that allele + 874T and genotype +874T/T were more frequent in the control group. The average plasma concentration of IFN-gamma among patients with tuberculosis was significantly lower than in the control group, and were lower in the EPTB group than in the group with PTB, suggesting a relationship of low plasma levels of this cytokine with active tuberculosis and the progression to more serious forms of the disease. Furthermore, we observed the association of the +874T/T and +874A/A genotypes with high and low IFN-gamma plasma concentrations, respectively, both in TB patients and in the control groups. Thus our findings suggest an association of the IFNG +874T/A polymorphism with susceptibility to M. tuberculosis infection in the studied population.

Trachoma is the leading infectious cause of blindness in the world and is associated with precarious living conditions in developing countries. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the prevalence of trachoma in three municipalities of the Marajó Archipelago, located in the state of Pará, Brazil. In 2008, 2,054 schoolchildren from the public primary school system of the urban area of the region and their communicants were clinically examined; in 2016, 1,502 schoolchildren were examined. The positive cases seen during the clinical evaluation were confirmed by direct immunofluorescence (DIF) laboratory tests. The presence of antibodies against the genus Chlamydia was evaluated by indirect immunofluorescence (IIF), and the serotypes were determined by microimmunofluorescence (MIF). In 2008, the prevalence of trachoma among schoolchildren was 3.4% (69 cases) and it was more frequent in children between six and nine years of age and in females; among the communicants, a prevalence of 16.5% was observed. In 2016, three cases of trachoma were diagnosed (prevalence of 0.2%), found only in the municipality of Soure. The results of the present study showed that in 2008, trachoma had a low prevalence (3.4%) among schoolchildren in the urban area of Marajó Archipelago; eight years after the first evaluation and the introduction of control and prevention measures (SAFE strategy), there was a drastic reduction in the number of cases (0.2%), demonstrating the need for constant monitoring and effective measures for the elimination of trachoma., Author summary Trachoma is one of the main neglected infectious diseases and carry a considerable burden to human health as a consequence of the clinical severity of the disease which may evolve to blindness. The lack of hygiene, education and other indicators of low social and economic markers occurring in developing and underdeveloped countries favour the spread of Chlamydia trachomatis, the bacterium causing trachoma. Although there is an easy, cheap and available treatment, reinfections are common and transmission is a consequence of bad hygienic habits and the various serotypes of the bacterium. The Marajó territory, in the North of the Amazon region of Brazil, is a large area with an ill educated, poor population, with almost no access to health resources and with almost no chance of transportation to major urban centers. Trachoma was detected a long time ago in the island and now, for the first time, a clear effort was produced during an eight year period in order to improve health hygienic habits among children and their relatives. The number of new cases following an initial diagnosis, was significantly reduced by the application of the WHO SAFE (Surgery, Antibiotics, Facial hygiene and Education for better habits) strategy.

The present study compares the genotype frequencies between two population groups composed by 73 hepatitis C virus (HCV)-infected patients and 92 seronegative controls and investigates the role of allele variants as a possible factor in the susceptibility to HCV infection and the influence on disease progression. The identification of MBL*B and MBL*C alleles was performed by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the 349-bp product using BanI and MboII restriction enzymes, respectively, and a polymerase chain reaction-sequence-specific polymorphism for discrimination of MBL*D. The analysis of allele and genotype frequencies between an HCV-infected group and seronegative controls did not indicate significant differences. The comparison of chronically infected subjects with and without liver cirrhosis was also not statistically significant. The odds ratio estimations were not significant, and the values obtained cannot suggest that the presence of allele variant MBL*B could have some influence in the risk of HCV infection progression to liver cirrhosis and that the presence of allele MBL*D could confer some protection against disease progression, but a larger sample size is necessary to confirm the present results.

Este trabalho objetivou a caracterização molecular do vírus linfotrópico de células T humanas infectando doadores de sangue atendidos na Fundação Centro de Hemoterapia e Hematologia do Pará. Amostras de DNA de 79 indivíduos soropositivos para o vírus linfotrópico de células T humanas foram analisadas por meio da reação em cadeia da polimerase para as regiões genômicas pX, env e 5'LTR, de polimorfismos de comprimento de fragmentos de restrição e do seqüenciamento da região 5LTR, com posterior análise filogenética, definindo o tipo e o subtipo do HTLV circulante na população estudada. Observou-se uma maior prevalência de HTLV-1 (71%) em relação ao HTLV-2 (29%). As amostras de HTLV-1 sequenciadas foram classificadas como pertencentes ao subtipo Cosmopolita, subgrupo Transcontinental, sendo as de HTLV-2 identificadas como HTLV-2c. A análise de polimorfismos de comprimento de fragmentos de restrição da região env e do sequenciamento da região 5'LTR, identificou, pela primeira vez na Amazônia Brasileira, uma amostra de HTLV-2b, enfatizando a necessidade de estudos moleculares contínuos na região para melhor entendimento da epidemiologia de transmissão do HTLV na população e permitir a vigilância epidemiológica da emergência de novos tipos e subtipos.

The present study describes the molecular epidemiology of Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) among four Indian tribes (Kararao, Arara Laranjal, Tiriyo, and Zo'e) of the Amazon region of Brazil and a group of HIV-1-infected subjects from the urban population of Belem, Para. Infection was characterized by the presence of antibodies using ELISA (measuring antibodies to ORF59, ORF65, K8.1A, K8.1B, and ORF73), and molecular assays (gene amplification of the regions ORF26 and the variable region VR1). Antibodies to HHV-8 were detected in 66 samples of the 221 Brazilian Amerindians, namely, 6 (25%) in the Kararao, 18 (19.6%) in the Arara Laranjal, 24 (42.9%) in the Tiriyo, and 18 (36.7%) in the Zo'e. Among the 477 HIV-1-infected subjects, antibodies to HHV-8 were present in 74 (15.5%) persons. The ORF26 region was amplified in seven samples, one of the Arara Laranjal, one of the Tiriyo, two of the Zo'e, and three of the HIV-1-infected group. Subtyping of HHV-8 described a high multiplicity of molecular subtypes, including C (Zo'e), E (Tiriyo), and B (HIV-1 infected). Serological results confirm the high prevalence of HHV-8 among Amerindians and the presence of three subtypes in the Amazon region of Brazil, including a unique subtype, which favors the idea of HHV-8 as an ancient human infection within this particular geographical region.

The present study is the first investigation of the association between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs – rs8099917, rs12979860 and rs8103142) of the IL28B gene and the development of human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV)-associated arthropathy (HAA). Individuals with HAA exhibited low interleukin (IL) 6 (p

INTRODUCTION: Chlamydia infection is associated with debilitating human diseases including trachoma, pneumonia, coronary heart disease and urogenital diseases. Serotypes of C. trachomatis show a fair correlation with the group of diseases they cause, and their distribution follows a well-described geographic pattern. Serotype A, a trachoma-associated strain, is known for its limited dissemination in the Middle East and Northern Africa. However, knowledge on the spread of bacteria from the genus Chlamydia as well as the distribution of serotypes in Brazil is quite limited. METHODS: Blood samples of 1,710 individuals from ten human population groups in the Amazon region of Brazil were examined for antibodies to Chlamydia using indirect immunofluorescence and microimmunofluorescence assays. RESULTS: The prevalence of antibodies to Chlamydia ranged from 23.9% (Wayana-Apalai) to 90.7% (Awa-Guaja) with a mean prevalence of 50.2%. Seroreactivity was detected to C. pneumoniae and to all serotypes of C. trachomatis tested; furthermore, we report clear evidence of the as-yet-undescribed occurrence of serotype A of C. trachomatis. CONCLUSIONS: Specific seroreactivity not only accounts for the large extent of dissemination of C. trachomatis in the Amazon region of Brazil but also shows an expanded area of occurrence of serotype A outside the epidemiological settings previously described. Furthermore, these data suggest possible routes of Chlamydia introduction into the Amazon region from the massive human migration that occurred during the 1,700s.

Objective.This study investigated possible associations between the TNFα-308G/A, IFN+874A/T, IL-6-174C/G, IL-10-1082A/G, and TGFβ-509C/T polymorphisms with HIV-1 infection, in addition to correlation of the polymorphisms with clinical markers of AIDS progression, such as levels of CD4+/CD8+ T lymphocytes and plasma viral load.Methods.A total of 216 individuals who were infected with HIV-1 and on antiretroviral therapy (ART) and 294 individuals from the uninfected control group were analyzed.Results.All individuals evaluated were negative for total anti-HBc, anti-HCV, anti-T. pallidum, and anti-HTLV-1/2. The polymorphisms were identified by PCR-RFLP. Individuals presenting the IFN+874A allele as well as the AA genotype were more frequent in the HIV-1 infected group compared to the control group (P<0.05), in addition to having lower levels of CD4+ T lymphocytes. The CD8+ T lymphocytes count was significantly lower in individuals with the IL-10-1082 GG genotype. The TGFβ-509TT genotype was associated with higher plasma viral load.Conclusions.The results suggest that the presence of the IFN+874A allele confers susceptibility to HIV-1 infection and a decrease in the number of CD4+ T lymphocytes. In addition, the genotype associated with high serum levels of TGFβmay be associated with an increase in plasma viral load.

Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) plays a crucial role in the early recognition of pathogenic microorganisms and provides an ideal model to investigate the consequences of genetic variation and susceptibility to diseases. The present study investigated the occurrence of the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) rs4986790 (A>G) and rs4986791 (C>T) in theTLR4gene in chronic carriers of the hepatitis B (HBV) and C (HCV) viruses. A total of 420 blood samples were collected (HBV, 49; HCV, 72; and controls, 299) at the liver disease outpatient clinic of Hospital da Fundação Santa Casa de Misericórdia do Pará (FSCMPA). Genomic DNA extracted from leukocytes was subjected to real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis to identify the genetic profile of the participants. No significant differences were found in the allele and genotype frequencies between the infected participants and controls. No significant associations were found between the investigated polymorphisms and inflammatory activity, fibrosis, and the presence of cirrhosis; the same results were obtained in the haplotype analysis. The results showed a lack of association between the rs4986790 and rs4986791 SNPs and susceptibility to infection with HBV and HCV, as well as clinical and laboratory information of the patients.

The seroprevalence and the occurrence of an HIV-1 subtype was assessed in blood samples of the Tiriyo tribe. Antibody was found in 0.6% and the molecular analysis of the pro region detected the emergence of a subtype B for the first time in a native Indian tribe of the Amazon region of Brazil.

SUMMARYPrevious serological studies on the Arara do Laranjal Indian group revealed extensive HTLV-2 infections. A collection of 97 new samples from the Arara were found repeatedly negative using three different commercial enzyme immunoassays. Eight samples that exhibited optical density readings close to the cut-off value were re-evaluated using Western blot (GeneLab 2.4, Singapore) assay. One sample was found to be non-reactive, five exhibited indeterminate patterns, one was classified as HTLV, and one was confirmed as HTLV-2. Peripheral blood mononuclear cell DNA of the eight samples were subjected to nested PCR and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of thepXandenvregions, and nucleotide sequencing of the 5′-LTRregion. All produced amplification products ofpX, butenvcould be amplified in only one sample with the commonly used primers. RFLP analysis of thepXregion usingTaqI confirmed HTLV-2 infection. Nucleotide sequencing of the 5′-LTRregion was performed in three samples (HTLV-2, HTLV and indeterminate based on Western blot pattern). Phylogenetic analysis of a 449-nt fragment using the Neighbour-Joining method clearly demonstrated that the three samples clustered within the HTLV-2c molecular subtype. The present study confirms the wide dissemination of the HTLV-2c subtype among linguistically and culturally distinct Amazonian Indian groups, and emphasizes the unique occurrence of infection by this subtype in Brazil. Moreover, it emphasizes the limitation of employing the present serological screening assays in blood banks, epidemiological studies, and the importance of molecular assays in the confirmatory procedures for the primary detection of HTLV-2 infections.

Mannose-binding lectin (MBL) is a serum protein whose low concentration is associated with the occurrence of allele variants named MBL*B, MBL*C and MBL*D. The present study investigated the association between MBL gene polymorphism and the susceptibility to HIV-1 infection. The study of 145 HIV-1-infected subjects and 99 healthy controls showed the presence of alleles MBL*A, MBL*B and MBL*D, whose frequencies were 69%, 22% and 09% among patients and 71%, 13% and 16% among healthy controls, respectively. The presence of the variant MBL*B was associated with higher plasma viral load levels, suggesting the importance of the MBL gene polymorphism in the clinical evolution of HIV-1-infected patients.

The present study investigated the prevalence of the polymorphisms in the exon 1 of the MBL2 gene in patients with tuberculosis at a hospital in northern Brazil, which is a regional reference for the treatment of the disease. The study group was composed of 167 patients with tuberculosis, 34 of which had the extra-pulmonary form of the disease, while the other 133 had the pulmonary type. The control group consists of 159 healthy individuals. Samples of DNA extracted from leucocytes were submitted to Polymerase Chain Reaction for the amplification of a 120-bp segment of exon 1 of the MBL2 gene. The distribution of allele and genotype frequencies varied little among the different groups, and it was not possible to establish any clear association between the variants of the MBL2 gene and the susceptibility to or clinical profile of tuberculosis infections in the population analyzed.

INTRODUCTION: The present study investigated the association between mannose-binding lectin (MBL) gene polymorphism and serum levels with infection by HIV-1. METHODS: Blood samples (5mL) were collected from 97 HIV-1-infected individuals resident in Belém, State of Pará, Brazil, who attended the Special Outpatient Unit for Infections and Parasitic Diseases (URE-DIPE). CD4+ T-lymphocyte count and plasma viral load were quantified. A 349bp fragment of exon 1 of the MBL was amplified via PCR, using genomic DNA extracted from controls and HIV-1-infected individuals, following established protocols. MBL plasma levels of the patients were quantified using an enzyme immunoassay kit. RESULTS: Two alleles were observed: MBL*O, with a frequency of 26.3% in HIV-1-infected individuals; and the wild allele MBL*A (73.7%). Similar frequencies were observed in the control group (p > 0.05). Genotype frequencies were distributed according to the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium in both groups. Mean MBL plasma levels varied by genotype, with statistically significant differences between the AA and AO (p < 0.0001), and AA and OO (p < 0.001) genotypes, but not AO and OO (p = 0.17). Additionally, CD4+ T-lymphocytes and plasma viral load levels did not differ significantly by genotype (p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study do not support the hypothesis that MBL gene polymorphism or low plasma MBL concentrations might have a direct influence on HIV-1 infection, although a broader study involving a large number of patients is needed.

Objective To identify the oral carriage of Candida spp in patients infected by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and the possible correlation with clinical characteristics. Study Design Mucosal swab samples collected from 246 patients who were infected by HIV, did not have oral candidiasis, and were being treated with highly active antiretroviral therapy were analyzed. Yeast colonies that developed were identified by using the VITEK 2 automated system. Results Candida yeasts were present in 41.87% of the samples, and Candida albicans was the most prevalent (32.52%). Other identified Candida species were C tropicalis (4.88%), C parapsilosis (2.85%), C dubliniensis (0.81%), and C famata (0.81%). Conclusions There was low rate of oral Candida carriage in patients infected by HIV who were on highly active antiretroviral therapy. A greater prevalence of C albicans than non- albicans Candida species was found at the species level. Prior candidiasis predicted the oral carriage of C albicans ; however, it did not influence the carriage of non- albicans species. This is the first report of oral carriage of C famata in patients with HIV infection.

In this study, the polymorphisms in the FAS and FASL genes was investigated in a sample of 198 HIV-1-seropositive individuals and 191 seronegative controls to evaluate a possible association between polymorphisms and the infection. The identification of the A and G alleles of the FAS -670 polymorphism was accomplished through polymerase chain reaction assays followed by digestion with the restriction enzyme MvaI. The identification of the A and G alleles of the FAS -124 polymorphism and the T and delT alleles of the FAS -169 polymorphism were performed using the amplification-created restriction site method followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism reactions. The comparative analysis of allelic and genotypic frequencies between the groups did not reveal any significant differences. However, the quantitative analysis of CD4(+) T lymphocytes suggests that the G allele of the FAS -670 A/G polymorphism can be a protective factor against the depletion of these cells in the course of an HIV-1 infection. Polymorphisms in the FAS and FASL genes were not associated with the number of CD8(+) T lymphocytes or the plasma viral load. Our findings suggest that the FAS -670 polymorphism may be associated with apoptosis of CD4(+) T lymphocytes after infection by HIV-1.

Aim. The aim of this study was to characterize the genetic profile of patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection relative to polymorphisms rs12979860 and rs8099917 in geneIL28Band the association of those polymorphisms with the response to treatment with pegylated interferon and ribavirin, performed at a reference center in Brazilian Amazonia.Methods. A total of 75 individuals with chronic hepatitis C and 98 healthy individuals from both genders over 18 years old were assessed. DNA samples were collected from leukocytes and subjected to real-time polymerase chain reaction to genotype polymorphisms rs12979860 and rs8099917.Results. Analysis of the allelic and genotypic frequencies of the investigated polymorphisms showed that both groups were in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium; polymorphism rs12979860 exhibited no significant difference between the groups. For polymorphism rs8099917, allele T was significantly less frequent (P=0.0195) among the patients (63.3%) than the controls (75.5%), and the patients were 1.7 times as likely to exhibit allele G. No difference in response to treatment was associated with SNP patterns.Conclusion. The results suggest a possible association of SNP rs8099917 with higher odds of chronic HCV infection but do not indicate a putative influence of the investigated SNPs on the sustained virologic response.

O presente estudo avaliou a ocorrência da infecção pelo HTLV-1 e seus subtipos em amostras de sangue de pacientes com diagnóstico clínico de paraparesia espástica tropical/mielopatia associada ao Htlv-1. A detecção da infecção pelo HTLV realizou-se através de testes sorológico e molecular. Cinco amostras estavam infectadas pelo HTLV-1 do subtipo Cosmopolita, subgrupo Transcontinental. Os resultados obtidos confirmam a ocorrência de infecção pelo HTLV-1 em pacientes com diagnóstico clínico de paraparesia espástica tropical/mielopatia associada ao Htlv-1em Belém, Pará.

In this study, the prevalence, genotype frequency, and risk factors for HBV infection in 768 HIV-infected subjects living in Piaui were determined. Forty-six (6.0 %) HIV-positive subjects were reactive for HBsAg and positive for HBV-DNA. Genotypes A (71.8 %), F (23.9 %) and D (4.3 %) were identified. Multivariate analysis revealed an association between HIV-HBV coinfection and male gender, older age groups, unprotected sex, reporting more than ten sexual partners throughout life, STD, and tattooing. This study shows the importance of monitoring sites and professionals who perform tattooing and practice safe sex to prevent the spread of HIV and HBV infections.

Background HTLV-1 is a retrovirus that causes lymphoproliferative disorders and inflammatory and degenerative diseases of the central nervous system in humans. The prevalence of this infection is high in parts of Brazil and there is a general lack of public health care programs. As a consequence, official data on the transmission routes of this virus are scarce. Objective To demonstrate familial aggregation of HTLV infections in the metropolitan region of Belém, Pará, Brazil. Method A cross-sectional study involving 85 HTLV carriers treated at an outpatient clinic and other family members. The subjects were tested by ELISA and molecular methods between February 2007 and December 2010. Results The prevalence of HTLV was 43.5% (37/85) for families and 25.6% (58/227) for the family members tested (95% CI: 1.33 to 3.79, P = 0.0033). Sexual and vertical transmission was likely in 38.3% (23/60) and 20.4% (29/142) of pairs, respectively (95% CI: 1.25 to 4.69, P = 0.0130). Positivity was 51.3% (20/39) and 14.3% (3/21) in wives and husbands, respectively (95% CI: 0.04 to 0.63, P = 0.0057). By age group, seropositivity was 8.0% (7/88) in subjects, Author Summary Human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV) has a slow replication rate and infection is characterized by low morbidity and mortality, as well as silent transmission within the population. While rare, HTLV-associated diseases are usually debilitating and life-threatening. The virus is endemic in the state of Pará (Brazil), although there have been no studies of the distribution of the virus within the local population. The results of the present study confirm the existence of familial aggregations of HTLV infection in the metropolitan region of the state capital, Belém. Considerably higher rates of sexual transmission of HTLV from men to women were also demonstrated. Rates of infection were similar for the two virus types, although HTLV-2 appears to be increasing in the population. The frequency of positivity among family members increased in direct proportion to age and was associated with a relatively large proportion of asymptomatic carriers. In addition, widespread ignorance of the virus increases the risk of transmission. The available evidence indicates that significant human suffering is caused by this virus in patients suffering complications, and this is little justification for the lack of intervention on the part of public health authorities, which might impede the ongoing proliferation of this infection in the population.

Objectives: The present study identified the prevalent hepatitis B virus (HBV) genotypes and subtypes in patients from the Brazilian state of Para. Materials: A sample of 40 patients infected with HBV was selected from a special facility in Belem between January, 2007, and December, 2008. Clinical, biochemical, serological, virological and pathological variables were used to classify patients as inactive carriers and those with chronic hepatitis, either with or without cirrhosis. Serological tests were performed using enzyme immunoassays and viral DNA sequences and the viral load were assessed using PCR. The HBV genotypes were identified through the sequencing of the S region. Results: All but two of the patients sequenced were genotype A, of which, 92% were A1 and 8% A2. The other two patients were genotype D. The A1 samples were either subtype ayw1 or adw2, while the A2 and D subjects were adw2 and ayw3, respectively. The prevalence of genotype A was 90.5% in group A and 100% in group B. Conclusion: No association was found between genotype and the clinical outcomes of the HBV infection.

The dental pulp is a sterile highly vascularized tissue and has been commonly used as a biological material to detect the genome of infectious agents that reach the dental tissue. Indeed, the pulp is also used to reveal past and ancient infections in the field of paleomicrobiology. The present study aimed to detect the presence of Hepatitis C virus (HCV) in a small community (approximately 400 inhabitants) in the Amazon region of Brazil (Nossa Senhora do Perpetuo Socorro, Vizeu, Para, Brazil) and standardize a technique for the detection of the virus in the dental pulp. Serum samples were collected from 48 patients whose teeth were clinically recommended for surgical extraction. The group comprised an equal number of males and females, mostly agriculture workers and housewives, respectively. The majority (64.6%) received less than one minimum wage and were ill educated (less than four years of school years). An enzyme immune assay was used to detect antibodies to HCV and the 9 (18.8%) positive samples were submitted to nucleic acid extraction in the blood (using the EXTRAzol) and the pulp (QIAamp DNA Micro Kit e kit RNeasy Plus Micro). The pulp was removed using a modified protocol without the use of liquid nitrogen. Nucleic acid was found in 8 of the dental pulp, but in 7 of the blood samples. Sequencing of one of the samples showed the presence of genotype 1. Conclusions: A novel simplified methodology for the extraction and amplification of HCV nucleic acid was successful to detect the presence of persistent infections of the virus within the dental pulp tissue. The protocol may be helpful to detect past and ancient infections and to better understand the natural history of HCV.

UNLABELLED:This study aimed to evaluate the relative mRNA expression of Fas receptor (FAS), Fas ligand (FASL), and forkhead box protein 3 (FOXP3) in liver biopsy specimens obtained from patients with viral and non-viral chronic hepatitis and correlate their expression with the fibrosis stage. A total of 51 liver biopsy specimens obtained from HBV (n = 6), HCV (n = 28), and non-viral hepatic disease (NVHD) (n = 9) patients and from individuals with normal liver histology (n = 8) (control-CT) were analyzed. Quantifications of the target genes were assessed using qPCR, and liver biopsies according to the METAVIR classification. The mRNA expression levels of FAS and FASL were lower in the CT group compared to the groups of patients. The increase in the mRNA expression of FAS and FASL was correlated with higher levels of inflammation and disease progression, followed by a decline in tissues with cirrhosis, and it was also associated with increased levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST). Higher mRNA expression of FOXP3 was observed in the HCV and NVHD groups, with the peak observed among patients with cirrhosis. The increased FOXP3 mRNA expression was positively correlated with increased FAS and FASL mRNA expression and the AST and ALT levels in all patients. CONCLUSIONS:These results suggest that regardless of the cause, the course of chronic liver disease may be modulated by the analyzed genes and correlated with an increase in regulatory T cells during the liver damage followed by hepatocyte destruction by Fas/FasL system and subsequent non specific lymphocytic infiltrate accumulation.

Objective The present paper investigated possible correlations between the clinical presentation of hepatitis B and the TNF-α −308G/A, IFN-γ +874A/T, TGF-beta1 −509C/T, and IL-10 −1081A/G polymorphisms and associated serum levels of these cytokines. Methods Fifty-three hepatitis patients were selected and divided into two groups: A – inactive ( n = 30) and B – chronic hepatitis/cirrhosis ( n = 23). The control group consisted of 100 subjects who were positive for anti-HBc and anti-HBs. The serum concentrations of the cytokines were determined by immunoenzymatic assays. The polymorphisms of the cytokines genes were assessed by PCR and PCR-SSP. Results The mean serum levels of IFN-γ of the control group were significantly higher than those of groups A and B , whereas the mean levels TGF-beta1 were significantly higher in groups A and B in comparison with the control. In the case of IL-10, the mean serum level recorded in the control group was significantly higher than that of group B . The TNF-α −308AG genotype was considerably more frequent in group B (43.3%) than the control (14.4%). Conclusion Higher serum levels of IFN-γ and TGF-beta1 were associated with chronic hepatitis B, and lower serum levels of IL-10 were found in patients with the active disease. Furthermore the presence of allele A of the TNF-α −308 polymorphism suggest a risk of the progressive disease.

JC polyomavirus (JCV) is a member of the Polyomaviridae family. It presents a tropism to kidney cells, and the infection occurs in a variety of human population groups of different ethnic background. The present study investigated the prevalence of JCV infection among human populations from the Brazilian Amazon region, and describes the molecular and phylogenetic features of the virus. Urine samples from two urban groups of Belem (healthy subjects), one Brazilian Afro- descendant ''quilombo'' from the Rio Trombetas region, and native Indians from the Wai-Wai, Urubu-Kaapor, Tembe´, Assurini, Arara do Laranjal, Aukre, Parakana˜, Surui and Munduruku villages were investigated for the presence of the virus by amplifying VP1 (230 bp) and IG (610 bp) regions using a polymerase chain reaction. Nucleotide sequences (440 nucleotides, nt) from 48 samples were submitted to phylogenetic analysis. The results confirmed the occurrence of types A (subtype EU), B (subtypes Af-2, African and MY, Asiatic) and C (subtype Af-1) among healthy subjects; type B, subtypes Af-2 and MY, among the Afro-Brazilians; and type B, subtype MY, within the Surui Indians. An unexpected result was the detection of another polyomavirus, the BKV, among Afro-descendants. The present study shows, for the first time, the occurrence of JC and BK polyomaviruses infecting humans from the Brazilian Amazon region. The results show a large genetic variability of strains circulating in the region, infecting a large group of individuals. The presence of European, Asiatic and African subtypes associated to the ethnic origin of the population samples investigated herein, highlights the idea that JCV is a fairly good marker for studying the early migration of human populations, reflecting their early and late history. Furthermore, the identification of the specific mutations associated to the virus subtypes, suggests that these mutations have occurred after the entrance of the virus in the Amazon region of Brazil.

No other group of infectious agents has received increased attention from scientists in recent years than that of retroviruses. This reflects not only their importance as pathogens of humans and animals, but also its great value in studying the interactions between pathogens and host. The family Retroviridae comprises a large number of viruses that have the ability to insert its genome into the host cell and infect primarily vertebrates, despite having been described infections in other animals such as snails and insects. Viruses pathogenic to humans which cause infections worldwide can be divided into two main groups: the transformants and the cytopathic. The first, induce changes in the control of cell division and can lead to tumors, such as Human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV), belonging to the genus Deltaretrovirus and is linked to neurological and hematological. Cytopathic retroviruses are members of the Lentivirus genus, such as the Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and are related to severe immunodeficiency condictions. The ubiquotous conditions, now known by the name of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is caused by HIV and was first recognized in the summer of 1981. The spread of an emerging virus in all regions of the world, caused great losses both in terms of human lives as well as in the economic point of view. HIV infection results in a profound disorder in the host immune system, which is characterized by a decrease in the number of lymphocytes with the CD4 glycoprotein on their surface, especially helper T lymphocytes (ATL), with subsequent reversal of the ratio of CD4+ or CD8+ T lymphocytes. In Brazil, the HIV-1 dissemination reflects the grandeur and diversity sociogeographic of the country and its regional heterogeneity. The first cases of HIV/AIDS in Brazil, dates from 1982 and were originated the Southeast individual, which today still has the highest number of reported cases of the disease. Subtypes B, F, C and D, in addition to samples of virus recombinants and dual infections in different geographical areas. In the present chapter, we describe the molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 infection in the Brazilian Amazon region, emphasizing its impact in the city of Belem, Capital of the Para State, which is the main port of entry into the Amazon, highlighting the occurrence of the circulating subtypes and the genetic profile of the host which is associated with the infection.

The family Nematotaeniidae, tapeworms commonly found in the small intestines of amphibians and reptiles, includes 27 recognised species distributed among four genera: Bitegmen Jones, Cylindrotaenia Jewell, Distoichometra Dickey and Nematotaenia Lühe. The taxonomy of these cestodes is poorly defined, due in part to the difficulties of observing many anatomical traits. This study presents and describes a new genus and species of nematotaeniid parasite found in cane toads (Rhinella marina) from eastern Brazilian Amazonia. The cestodes were collected during the necropsy of 20 hosts captured in the urban area of Belém, Pará. The specimens were fixed and processed for light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction. Samples were also collected for molecular analyses. The specimens presented a cylindrical body, two testes and paruterine organs. However, they could not be allocated to any of the four existing nematotaeniid genera due to the presence of two each of dorsal compact medullary testes, cirri, cirrus pouches, genital pores, ovaries and vitelline glands per mature segment. Lanfrediella amphicirrus gen. nov. sp. nov. is the first nematotaeniid studied using Historesin analysis, SEM and 3D reconstruction, and it is the second taxon for which molecular data have been deposited in GenBank.

One of the major goals for the future of medicine is the prediction of susceptibility, resistance, increased transmission risk, infection, and disease on an individual basis to provide personalized medical, drug-based treatment. To do this, relevant information must be available.Mannose binding lectin (MBL) is a liver-derived pluripotent serum lectin and molecule of the innate response system. It binds with high affinity to mannose or other sugar components on the surface of viruses, bacteria, and yeasts and mediates phagocytosis or activates the lectin pathway of the complement system

The molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 strains circulating in Belem-PA and Macapa-AP, in the Northern region of Brazil, is described using sequences of the C2V3 segment of the env and the pro gene of HIV-1 from patients of the Reference Unit for Special Infectious and Parasitary Diseases (URE-DIPE) in Belem-PA and the Central Laboratory (LACEN) in Macapa-AP. Subtype B was the most frequently found in relation to pro (88.3%) in Belem and in Macapa (97.1%) and env (88.3% in Belem and 100% in Macapa). Subtype F was also described in Belem (9.3% pro and 8.3% env) and Macapa (2.8% pro). Subtype D was described for the first time in the Northern region of the country as well as the recent entry of CRF02_AG. Furthermore, several possible recombinant forms among the various subtypes were found in both cities. The results support the hypothesis that HIV-1 infection is associated with the epidemic of the virus in the Southeast region of the country and that the city of Belem is the most important route for HIV-1 entry in the Northern region of Brazil.

Canine filariasis in domestic and wild dogs, foxes, and wolves is caused by several species of filarids. Although these filarial species inhabit different loci in the vertebrate definitive hosts, they generally release microfilariae into the bloodstream. Data about filarial infection in dogs in Brazil, especially on the Marajo Island, is scarce. For this reason, we conducted an analysis of 188 domestic dogs within two Marajo Island municipalities. The overall prevalence of microfilaremic was 32.45%; taken by blood smear and modified Knott's method. No significant difference of positivity between male and female was observed (X(2) Yates's correction = 0.341; p = 0.559). Significant age-infection ratios were detected (X(2) = 32.943; p < 0.0001). A high occult infection was detected (53.84%). PCR of rDNA and phylogenetic tree indicated that the microfilariae and adult worms found in domestic dogs from Marajo Island were Dirofilaria immitis.