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The article discusses the unit of study as an inquiry-based instructional approach helping students' potential as writers in single-subject areas and other disciplines in the U.S. According to the authors, this instructional approach to teaching writing can help students meet the Common Core State Standards (CCSS) for writing. The authors say that this approach enables students to choose topics for their writing activities, honoring their voices and ideas that are important to them.

This chapter covers the conceptual framework and presents practical guidelines for using single-case research (SCR) methods to determine evidence-based treatments. We posit that SCR designs contribute compelling evidence to the knowledge base that is distinct from group design research. When effect sizes are calculated SCR can serve as a reliable indicator of how much behavior change occurs with an inter-vention in applied settings. Strong SCR design can determine functional relationships and effect sizes with confidence intervals can represent the size and the certainty of the results in a standardized manner. Thus, SCR is unique in retaining data about the individual and individual effects, while also providing data that can be aggregated to identify evidence-based treatments and examine moderator variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Collection of interobserver agreement data and reporting the results with summary statistics are standard practices in single-case research. An alternative to summary statistics is plotting the second observer's data on the same graph as the primary observer. In this study, we evaluated whether plotting the second observer's data differentially influenced the judgments about functional relations for A-B-A-B designs. Participants were graduate students and experts. Results suggested that (a) experts made more accurate judgments than graduate students, (b) raters made more accurate judgments for graphs with 1 rather than 2 primary data paths, and (c) raters were not influenced differentially in their judgments of functional relations by the presence or absence of the second observer's plotted data. In addition to standard hypothesis testing, equivalence testing was performed and showed accuracy of judgments was equivalent for graphs with and without the second observers' data being added. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The target article in the current issue of PCSP by Fredrik Folke and associates (2012) documents and interprets six case studies of cognitive-behavioral therapy for Body Dysmorphic Disorder. This introduction places the article in a larger methodological context from my perspective as editor of the PCSP journal. I first review five types of case studies identified by McLeod (2010) in his seminal book on case study research. These include the main type of case study employed in PCSP, the Pragmatic Case Study, and four other kinds, including those that focus on theory-building, the adjudication of truth claims, the narrative experience of the participants, and single-case experimental designs. I then discuss the advantages of combining Pragmatic Case Study designs with these other types. The Folke et al. article is an example of a successful such combination, integrating parallel pragmatic case studies within a single-case experimental design structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objectives: Relationships between training load, psychobiosocial (PBS) states and performance are dynamic and individual-specific. The nature of these relationships can be investigated using a combination of dynamic linear models (DLMs) and mediating variable analysis, potentially assisting applied sports psychologists in planning and monitoring of individual elite athletes’ intervention programmes. Design: We illustrate this approach by examining the relationships of training loads with a performance-related state (‘self-efficacy’) and the role of potential mediating PBS variables (‘fatigue/lack of energy’ and ‘being in shape’) in explaining these relationships in an elite triathlete across time. Method: Self-reports of PBS states (twice weekly) and training data were collected over 137 days. Using DLMs and mediating variable analysis, direct (unmediated) and indirect (mediated) short-term associations of training load with ‘self-efficacy’ were examined. Results: In this triathlete, we found evidence for positive effects of training on ‘self-efficacy’, which were partly explained by feelings of ‘being in shape’ and suppressed by feelings of ‘fatigue/lack of energy’. Changes in the relationship between lagged training load and ‘fatigue/lack of energy’ were observed across time and were particularly pronounced in temporal proximity of an injury. Conclusion: Strengths of the presented approach are its dynamic nature enabling the observation of changes occurring over time, use of statistical inference rather than visual data interpretation, and quantification of mediating effects to identify potential pathways of intervention. Additionally, the DLM method can identify complex nonlinear associations by examining correspondence between changes in levels of predictors and changes in magnitude and direction of predictor-outcome associations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Therapeutic puppetry is the use of puppets to aid emotional healing. There is no published research investigating the effectiveness of therapeutic puppetry with people with severe mental illness (SMI). A pilot investigation of group therapeutic puppetry with people with SMI tested the hypotheses that this intervention results in improvements in mental wellbeing, self-esteem, and body connection. It also investigated mechanisms of change, and service user acceptability and experience. In this mixed methodology study, five single ABA design case studies were utilised, with time series data analysed using simulation modelling analysis. Qualitative data was collected via participant observation and participant interviews and analysed using thematic analysis. Three participants experienced statistically and clinically significant changes in either positive or negative directions during the intervention, with all participants describing therapeutic puppetry as powerful and beneficial. The authors conclude that therapeutic puppetry is a potentially powerful medium which could be utilised by various mental health professionals. Furthermore, service users find therapeutic puppetry acceptable and beneficial despite it being an occasionally difficult and intense experience. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Numerous ways to meta-analyze single-case data have been proposed in the literature; however, consensus has not been reached on the most appropriate method. One method that has been proposed involves multilevel modeling. For this study, we used Monte Carlo methods to examine the appropriateness of Van den Noortgate and Onghena's () raw-data multilevel modeling approach for the meta-analysis of single-case data. Specifically, we examined the fixed effects (e.g., the overall average treatment effect) and the variance components (e.g., the between-person within-study variance in the treatment effect) in a three-level multilevel model (repeated observations nested within individuals, nested within studies). More specifically, bias of the point estimates, confidence interval coverage rates, and interval widths were examined as a function of the number of primary studies per meta-analysis, the modal number of participants per primary study, the modal series length per primary study, the level of autocorrelation, and the variances of the error terms. The degree to which the findings of this study are supportive of using Van den Noortgate and Onghena's () raw-data multilevel modeling approach to meta-analyzing single-case data depends on the particular parameter of interest. Estimates of the average treatment effect tended to be unbiased and produced confidence intervals that tended to overcover, but did come close to the nominal level as Level-3 sample size increased. Conversely, estimates of the variance in the treatment effect tended to be biased, and the confidence intervals for those estimates were inaccurate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this essay, the advantages and disadvantages of single case and group study research design methodologies are discussed. The arguments supporting one or the other study design are introduced relying on most prominent scientific opinions in the field. The terms of single and double dissociation are introduced. Examples from relevant neuropsychological studies are provided in order to illustrate the use of case and group study methodologies for single and double dissociation. The two study designs are shown to deal with single and double dissociations in their own way and to contribute significantly to the advancement of neuropsychological sciences. It is concluded that the research design method selected should be tailored to deal with the specific problems raised by the nature of the question under research and fit in the realm of the chosen cognitive theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The impact of baseline trend control on visual analyses of AB intervention graphs was examined with simulated data at various values of baseline trend, autocorrelation, and effect size. Participants included 202 undergraduate students with minimal training in visual analysis and 10 graduate students and faculty with more training and experience in visual analysis. In general, results were similar across both groups of participants. Without statistical adjustments to correct for baseline trend, Type I errors greatly increased as baseline trend increased. With corrections for baseline trend, fewer Type I errors were made. As trend increased, participants made fewer Type II errors on the unadjusted graphs as compared to the graphs with baseline trend control. The greater Type II error rate on adjusted graphs could be an artifact of study design (i.e., participants did not know if baseline trend control had been applied), and the impact of MASAJ on Type II errors needs to be explored in detail prior to more widespread use of the method. Implications for future use of baseline trend control techniques by educational professionals are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Trends in educational research, teaching practices, and teacher responsibilities change over time. There is currently a movement away from relying on summative assessment and large-group research to assessing individual students on a formative basis. This push is partially legal, and the 2004 Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA) is encouraging adoption of Response to Intervention (RtI) at all levels of education. One research methodology that is particularly poised to meet the call by IDEIA is single-subject research designs, which have recently been endorsed by the What Works Clearinghouse. This article provides an overview of common single-subject designs, discusses the underlying logic of these designs, identifies many advantages this methodology provides to the classroom, and describes the dimension of behavior that may be measured and graphed for visual analysis. Understanding single-subject research designs and their use at the middle and secondary level is one of the first steps toward implementation of the RtI model after elementary school. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Single subject research is a scientific research methodology that is increasingly used in the field of special education. Therefore, understanding the unique characteristics of single subject research methodology is critical both for educators and practitioners. Certain characteristics make single subject research one of the most preferred methodologies in special education. However, the design is not without limitations. The purpose of this article, by Orhan Cakiroglu, an assistant professor at Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey, is to provide an overview of the single subject research method's critical defining features and basic designs, and discuss what types of research questions single subject research is best suited to answer by providing examples from special education literature. Additionally, the key advantages and limitations of applying single subject research to the field of special education are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Schneider MKJ, Seebach JD. Xenotransplantation literature update, November-December 2011. Xenotransplantation 2012; 19; 65-69. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons A/S. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Araştırmada, 1939-2010 yılları arasında yapılmış olan Türk Milli Eğitim Şuraları’nda Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik (PDR) ile ilgili olarak alınmış olan kararların bir değerlendirilmesi yapılmıştır. Arastırmanın evrenini, 1939-2010 yılları arasında yapılmış olan Türk Milli Eğitim Şuraları oluşturmaktadır. Evrenin tamamına ulaşıldıgından örneklem alma yoluna gidilmemiştir. Araştırmada, durum çalışması desenlerinden iç içe geçmiş tek durum deseni (tür 2) kullanılmıştır. Veri toplama yöntemi olarak yazılı döküman incelemesi kullanılmış ve elde edilen veriler betimsel analiz ile çözümlenmiştir. Ayrıca, dökümanlardan elde edilen veriler, nicelleştirilerek de verilmiştir. Bunun için; “var ya da yok” yöntemi, “kapsanan alan” yöntemi kullanılmış; frekans ve yüzde dağılımları verilmiştir. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre, Milli Eğitim Şuraları’nda (MEŞ) PDR’nin gündeme getirildiği ilk şura, 7. ME Şurası (1962) olmuştur. 7. ME Şurası’ndan günümüze kadar gelen bütün şuralarda, PDR gündeme gelmiş ve çeşitli kararlar alınmıştır. PDR ilk kez gündem maddesi olarak 18. ME Şurası’nda (2010) yer almıştır. PDR ile ilgili olarak en fazla karar yine bu şurada alınmıştır. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre, PDR ile ilgili olarak alınmış olan kararların yaklaşık yarısı eğitsel PDR ile ilgilidir. Yine araştırma sonuçlarına göre, psikolojik danışmanların ünvanı ile ilgili olarak ağırlıklı rehber öğretmen ünvanı kullanılmıştır. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Abstract: A new index for analysis of single-case research data was proposed, Tau-U, which combines nonoverlap between phases with trend from within the intervention phase. In addition, it provides the option of controlling undesirable Phase A trend. The derivation of Tau-U from Kendall''s Rank Correlation and the Mann-Whitney U test between groups is demonstrated. The equivalence of trend and nonoverlap is also shown, with supportive citations from field leaders. Tau-U calculations are demonstrated for simple AB and ABA designs. Tau-U is then field tested on a sample of 382 published data series. Controlling undesirable Phase A trend caused only a modest change from nonoverlap. The inclusion of Phase B trend yielded more modest results than simple nonoverlap. The Tau-U score distribution did not show the artificial ceiling shown by all other nonoverlap techniques. It performed reasonably well with autocorrelated data. Tau-U shows promise for single-case applications, but further study is desirable. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In previous studies event-related potentials and oscillations in response to subject''s own name have been analyzed extensively on group-level in healthy subjects and in patients with a disorder of consciousness. Subject''s own name as a deviant produces a P3. With equiprobable stimuli, non-phase-locked alpha oscillations are smaller in response to subject''s own name compared to other names or subject''s own name backwards. However, little is known about replicability on a single-subject level. Seventeen healthy subjects were assessed in an own-name paradigm with equiprobable stimuli of subject''s own name, another name, and subject''s own name backwards. Event-related potentials and non-phase locked oscillations were analyzed with single-subject, non-parametric statistics. No consistent results were found either for ERPs or for the non-phase locked changes of oscillatory activities. Only 4 subjects showed a robust effect as expected, that is, a lower activity in the alpha–beta range to subject''s own name compared to other conditions. Four subjects elicited a higher activity for subject''s own name. Thus, analyzing the EEG reactivity in the own-name paradigm with equiprobable stimuli on a single-subject level yields a high variance between subjects. In future research, single-subject statistics should be applied for examining the validity of physiologic measurements in other paradigms and for examining the pattern of reactivity in patients. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Smoking is a major risk factor for a number of health conditions and many smokers find it difficult to quit smoking without specific interventions. We developed and used a mindfulness-based smoking cessation program with a 31-year-old man with mild intellectual disabilities who had been a smoker for 17 years. The mindfulness-based smoking cessation program consisted of three components: intention, mindful observation of thoughts, and Meditation on the Soles of the Feet. A changing-criterion analysis showed that this man was able to fade his cigarette smoking from 12 at baseline to 0 within 3 months, and maintain this for a year. Follow-up data, collected every 3 months following the maintenance period, showed he was able to abstain from smoking for 3 years. Our study suggests that this mindfulness-based smoking cessation program merits further investigation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The limitations people with profound intellectual disabilities experience in functioning contribute to a vulnerability to self-injurious behavior. Since this problem behavior has important negative consequences for people concerned, examining the effectiveness of treatments is important. In the current meta-analysis, single-case studies investigating non-aversive, non-intrusive forms of reinforcement were combined using hierarchical linear models. This analysis revealed that the average effect of treatment was relatively large and statistically significant. Further, significant variance was observed between both studies and participants. In addition, some evidence was found for a moderator effect of sensory impairment. Finally, no statistically significant moderator effects of medication, motor impairment, setting, age, gender, matching of treatment with behavioral function and contingency were found. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The purpose of this review was to examine the methods used to conduct meta-analyses of single-subject research involving students with and at-risk for disabilities. Specifically, the procedures used for preparing, aggregating, analyzing, and evaluating single-subject data across 68 primary syntheses were examined. In addition to these methodological and reporting issues, the present review also considered various characteristics of syntheses to determine their overall prevalence and focus. Results of the review indicated that the publication rate of single-subject meta-analyses has increased considerably in recent years, focusing equally on students with high- and low-incidence disabilities. This review revealed considerable variability in the methods and procedures used to synthesize single-subject research. Based on these findings, suggestions for future single-subject meta-analyses were made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Single-subject research (SSR) is an experimental research tradition that is well established in other fields (e.g., special education, behavior analysis) but has rarely been applied to topics in gifted education. In this Methodological Brief, Brandi Simonsen and Catherine A. Little from the University of Connecticut highlight the key features of SSR, describe typical SSR designs, and present examples to illustrate how each design could be applied to topics in gifted education. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Abstract: Social Stories™ are a popular intervention used with individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and other disabilities. Most of the research conducted to date has involved small n designs. Previous meta-analyses of this research have involved relatively small numbers of studies and issues such as selection bias and failure to evaluate methodological quality and have confounded the findings. The present article addresses the limitations of the previous meta-analyses and evaluates 62 studies using three small n metrics, focussing on whether Social Stories were effective with individuals with ASD or other disabilities. It was also determined whether efficacy varied systematically across study or participant characteristics. Consistent with previous reviews, while there was considerable variation, on average Social Stories appear to have only a small clinical effect on behaviour. Implications for the selection of interventions strategies by practitioners are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: We examined the effects of a professional development intervention that included data-based performance feedback delivered via electronic mail (e-mail) on preschool teachers’ use of descriptive praise and whether increased use of descriptive praise was associated with changes in classroom-wide measures of child engagement and challenging behavior. A multiple probe single-subject experimental design across four preschool teachers was used. Following a brief training session on the use of descriptive praise, coaches observed each teacher conduct a large-group activity and sent them e-mail messages containing performance feedback with a hyperlink to a descriptive praise video exemplar. Training plus e-mail feedback was associated with increases in teachers’ use of descriptive praise for each of the four teachers. Challenging behavior decreased somewhat as teachers’ use of descriptive praise increased. Class-wide measures of children''s engagement remained relatively stable across baseline and intervention phases. Implications for future research and practice are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Single subject research (SSR) can complement findings from aggregated group data and contribute uniquely toward the goal of generating and generalizing scientific knowledge in psychology. The present study illustrates these assertions with psychotherapy case formulation research. In earlier work my team and I identified and operationalized multiple dimensions of quality in case formulations. These include comprehensiveness, formulation elaboration, precision of language, complexity, coherence, treatment plan elaboration, goodness-of-fit between the treatment plan and the rest of the case formulation, and systematic process in following an a priori conceptual scheme. Using these dimensions, we found that cognitive- behavioral and psychodynamic experts generated higher quality case formulations than novice and experienced therapists. Experts also generated more ideas in their formulations and reasoned more inductively than deductively. In the present study, we explore these results further by qualitatively examining the highest quality psychodynamic and cognitive-behavioral formulations on the most difficult patient material, and then compare these two formulations with the two falling nearest to the 25th percentile range in quality ratings. Our goals were to investigate expert reasoning processes in case formulation more closely and to illustrate how aggregated group data and single subject research can mutually inform each other. We close by suggesting characteristics of a practical measure of case formulation expertise that may facilitate further investigations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Autistic traits and perplexity are considered core features of schizophrenia in phenomenological psychiatry. They express a fundamental disturbance of the self-world relation (including disturbances of self and intersubjectivity). The aim of our study was to examine this disturbance by exploring in detail how autism and perplexity are experienced subjectively. Methods: It is a qualitative single-case study. In order to fully examine our patient's experiences within the context of his experiential world and not only as isolated or decontextualized symptoms, we applied a heideggerian framework, i.e. Heidegger's exhaustive account of the self-world relation (care). Results: Through the framework of care, we discovered a profound disturbance of the self-world relation in our patient, characterized by subtle experiences of estrangement, anxiety and exposure. We found these experiences to be enduring, pervasive and generative for the development of other symptoms. Conclusions: We argue that these experiences can be seen as experiential correlates of schizotypy and of vulnerability to schizophrenia, and furthermore that an understanding of these experiences can play a role in diagnostic and differential diagnostic procedures, e.g. in early detection or in the search for high-risk individuals, as well as in the psychotherapy of schizophrenia. Copyright © 2010 S. Karger AG, Basel [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of reading racetracks and flashcards for teaching and response maintenance of sight words. Another purpose was to compare the use of different ratios of known and unknown words on both acquisition and maintenance. Both participants were enrolled in a special education self-contained classroom. The first participant was diagnosed with severe behavior disorders and a specific learning disability. The second participant was orthopedically impaired with severe scoliosis. The number of correct and error words were measured. A combination multiple baseline and reversal design with follow-up probes was used to evaluate the reading racetrack, flashcard, and ratio interventions. A functional relationship between racetracks and flashcards was established. To assess maintenance of sight words, a mini-reversal was conducted at the end of each reading racetrack condition. Maintenance of sight words was 100% after exposure to reading racetracks. Comparisons between using 7 (3 known and 4 unknown) or 14 (5 known and 9 unknown) words on a 28-cell reading racetrack did not produce differential outcomes for either acquisition or response maintenance of sight words. Follow-up probes also found high rates of response maintenance of sight words for each participant. Suggestions for further classroom implementation and research utilizing reading racetracks and flashcards were made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Case series methodology involves the systematic assessment of a sample of related patients, with the goal of understanding how and why they differ from one another. This method has become increasingly important in cognitive neuropsychology, which has long been identified with single-subject research. We review case series studies dealing with impaired semantic memory, reading, and language production and draw attention to the affinity of this methodology for testing theories that are expressed as computational models and for addressing questions about neuroanatomy. It is concluded that case series methods usefully complement single-subject techniques. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of short term hippotherapy on functional gait changes in children with cerebral palsy (CP). Participants were two boys (ages 12 and 13) with spastic diplegia and a girl (14 yrs) with athetoid CP. Single-subject (ABA) design was used to determine quantitative changes in functional gait parameters (velocity, stride length, and cadence) following three weeks of hippotherapy. The two boys demonstrated improvement in stride length and gait velocity without sustained improvement in cadence. There was increase in stride length and cadence, but most noticeable improvements in velocity for the girl. The results indicated that it is possible that short-term hippotherapy may improve functional gait in children with cerebral palsy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This pilot study investigated the impact of manipulating the value of perspective sentences on improving the manners of a student with autism spectrum disorders. Three types of perspective sentences (sentences held by unknown persons, those held by familiar persons, and those held by the most preferred person) were alternately added to a Social Story™ to determine which perspective sentences were the most effective in improving the student's head and elbow positions during sitting at morning circle and lunch. Results indicated that the effectiveness of a Social Story™ did not seem to depend on whose perspectives the story used. Findings suggest that depicting only the perspectives of the most preferred person in the story may not be sufficiently powerful to change behaviours. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In health related research, it is critical not only to demonstrate the effi cacy of intervention, but to show that this is not due to chance or confounding variables. Content: Single case experimental design is a useful quasi- experimental design and method used to achieve these goals when there are limited participants and funds for research. This type of design has various advantages compared to group experimental designs. One such advantage is the capacity to focus on individual performance outcomes compared to group performance outcomes. Conclusions: This comprehensive review demonstrates the benefi ts and limitations of using single case experimental design, its various design methods, and data collection and analysis for research purposes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Single subject research methodology is commonly used and cited in special education courses and journals. This article reviews the types of single subject research designs published in eight refereed journals between 1983 and 2007 used to answer applied research questions. Single subject designs were categorized as withdrawal/reversal, time lagged, comparison, or combination designs. To analyze data for trends, data were aggregated and presented in blocks of five years. Data were used to present a description of changes in the use of single subject designs for each journal reviewed and across each type of single subject design. Though limited by the number of randomly reviewed issues, results indicate specific trends in single subject methodology. A total of 196 randomly identified journal issues containing 1,936 articles were reviewed. Of reviewed articles, 456 employed at least one single subject design and a total of 556 single subject designs were coded. Results indicate time lagged designs were published more frequently than withdrawal/reversal designs. Also, multiple baseline designs were published more frequently than multiple probe designs and replication of effects for time lagged designs occurred more often across participants/groups. For comparison designs, there was an increase in trend concurrent with an increase in published functional analysis. Data collected also indicated an increase in the use of combination designs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Case study researchers choose between single and multiple case research approaches. The literature recommends single cases for gaining in-depth understanding and multiple cases for acquiring broader understanding. This article presents the unconventional approach of a primary case informed by multiple secondary cases. It suggests that focusing on one case while following some additional secondary cases may, paradoxically and under certain conditions, be a better way of conducting in-depth, single case research. The secondary, or assisting, cases can help the researcher to identify issues to expect, questions to ask, and data to look for in the primary case. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines single-case designs that omit baseline phases, contain shorter reversal phases, administer treatment across fewer baselines, or have other features that make them easier for practitioners to use in evaluating their own interventions. Particular attention is given to the Repeated Pretest-Posttest and the Periodic Treatments Designs, the Nonconcurrent Multiple-Baseline Design, the short reversal design, the short multiple-baseline design, and the short alternating treatments design. Also discussed and illustrated is how these streamlined designs can raise practitioners' sensitivity to intervention outcomes, assist practitioners in providing evidence-based services while adjusting for client diversity, and advance practitioners' knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of the I Can Use Effort strategy on the quality of student verbal contributions and IEP participation of third and fourth grade students with high-incidence disabilities. Using a multiple probe across participants design, results indicated a functional relationship between the I Can Use Effort strategy and the quality of students' verbal contributions related to the IEP process and students' learning strengths and preferences. The 5 lesson intervention improved all 4 students' ability to express their learning preferences and contribute information in an IEP meeting. In addition, measures of social validity demonstrated the social significance and appropriateness of the intervention's goals and procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effects of the concrete-representational--abstract (CRA) instructional sequence on the subtraction performance of students identified as at-risk for mathematics failure. Although the CRA sequence has been demonstrated as effective for teaching a variety of mathematical skills and processes its effects when used to teach subtraction with regrouping have not been studied. This study examined the effects of CRA instruction on elementary students' fluency in computing subtraction problems with regrouping in the tens place as well as regrouping in both the tens and hundreds places. The study also investigated the effects of CRA instruction on students' maintenance of regrouping skills. A multiple probe across students with embedded changing behaviors design was employed. A functional relation between CRA instruction and subtraction with regrouping was demonstrated across all students. The results and their implications are discussed further. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Delays in or lack of language development are a primary characteristic of autism. Thus, teachers, families and researchers face the challenge of determining which teaching strategies are most effective and efficient in addressing these communication deficits. This study attempts to add to the literature regarding this issue. A multi-treatment/multi-measure single-case design was used to compare the effects of the Picture Exchange Communication System (PECS) with a verbal modeling intervention on four communicative behaviors: (a) picture requests, (b) imitated verbalizations, (c) picture discrimination, and (d) any related speech for a 3 year old child with autism. Results indicated that the PECS training led to increases in picture requests and these results were maintained during the verbal modeling intervention phase. No change in imitated verbalizations was observed following either intervention. With respect to both picture discrimination and related speech, no significant results were achieved following PECS training or verbal modeling. However, during the verbal modeling phase the participant demonstrated a small increase in both picture discrimination and any related speech for both the PECS and verbal modeling item sets. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this conceptual paper is to describe a design that mixes single-case (sometimes referred to as single-subject) and qualitative methods, hereafter referred to as a single-case mixed methods design (SCD-MM). Minimal attention has been given to the topic of applying qualitative methods to SCD work in the literature. These two approaches potentially can be integrated using a mixed methods perspective to yield a powerful approach for understanding localized causality and describing intervention application. The SCD-MM also can be used within the context of action research if the purpose of such work is to investigate a causal question. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Counselor education programs are ethically bound to teach methods of research and evaluation so counselors may identify counseling methods that have a reasonable probability of success. Single-case design represents rigorous research practice, is amenable to practice. and allows the practitioner the opportunity to explore interventions from quantitative and qualitative perspectives. Key elements of single-case methodology are reviewed, including benefits, specific details, and pitfalls related to conducting single-case research with children. A case study and suggestions for implementation in counselor education are provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Patient RP suffers a unilateral right homonymous quadrant anopia but demonstrates better than chance discrimination for stimuli presented in the blind field at temporal frequencies between 33 and 47Hz (all significant at p <.05, binomial). Examination of her reports of visual experience during blind-field discrimination suggests a more complex picture in which experiences particular to correct discrimination are not found at low-mid-gamma frequencies, but are significantly more likely than average (76%, p <.001) at a lower frequency (22Hz) at which blindsight is not observed. We believe that visual experience may serve to support blindsight if discrimination tasks are generally impaired at frequencies outside of the low-mid-gamma band. If this is so, although generally experienced as non-specific and unstructured light, the visual experience that accompanies discrimination performance must be based upon a neural representation which includes information on the visual features present in the stimulus. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Nonoverlap of All Pairs (NAP), an index of data overlap between phases in single-case research, is demonstrated and field tested with 200 published AB contrasts. NAP is a novel application of an established effect size known in various forms as Area Under the Curve (AUC), the Common Language Effect Size (CL), the Probability of Superiority (PS), the Dominance Statistic (DS), Mann-Whitney's U, and Sommers D, among others. NAP was compared with 3 other non-overlap-based indices: PND (percent of nonoverlapping data), PEM (percent of data points exceeding the median), and PAND (percent of all nonoverlapping data), as well as Pearson's R2. Five questions were addressed about NAP: (a) typical NAP values, (b) its ability to discriminate among typical single-case research results, (c) its power and precision (confidence interval width), (d) its correlation with the established effect size index, R2, and (e) its relationship with visual judgments. Results were positive, the new index equaling or outperforming the other overlap indices on most criteria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the present study, we proposed a modification in one of the most frequently applied effect-size procedures in single-case data analysis: the percentage of nonoverlapping data. In contrast with other techniques, the calculus and interpretation of this procedure are straightforward and can be easily complemented by visual inspection of the graphed data. Although the percentage of nonoverlapping data has been found to perform reasonably well in N = 1 data, the magnitude of effect estimates that it yields can be distorted by trend and autocorrelation. Therefore, the data-correction procedure focuses on removing the baseline trend from data prior to estimating the change produced in the behavior as a result of intervention. A simulation study was carried out in order to compare the original and the modified procedures in several experimental conditions. The results suggest that the new proposal is unaffected by trend and autocorrelation and that it can be used in case of unstable baselines and sequentially related measurements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Insomnia is one of the most prevalent psychological disorders worldwide. Some of the deficiencies of the current treatments of insomnia are: side effects in the case of sleeping pills and high costs in the case of psychotherapeutic treatment. Some suggest that self-help treatments could be a viable alternative, with certain advantages such as low cost, and wide accessibility to a large number of people. In our study we used a modified Latin square experimental design for single subject research to verify the effect of multi-component treatment efficiency in primary insomnia. Another goal of our study was to compare the effects of the three treatment techniques (progressive muscle relaxation, sleep hygiene, binaural beats) included in the multi-component intervention package. Our results reflect the efficiency of the multi-component treatment. Significant differences were found only between muscle relaxation and binaural beat. Based on effects size measures we can say that muscle relaxation and sleep hygiene have a very similar effect. The effect of binaural beat treatment is lower than that of the other two types of intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This special issue illustrates how brief experimental analysis (BEA) is gaining recognition as a valuable tool for making treatment decisions about children who are unresponsive to regular classroom instruction. This commentary article provides evidence for why BEA has grown in popularity, briefly summarizes each of the studies included in the series, and discusses issues that are critical to conducting and interpreting data from a BEA. The articles in the issue exemplify how BEA is flexible enough to evaluate diverse intervention options, is time and cost efficient, and is uniquely suited for use in a problem-solving approach to school-based service delivery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many students experience difficulty in acquiring basic writing skills and educators need to efficiently address those deficits by implementing an intervention with a high likelihood for success. The current article demonstrates the utility of using a brief experimental analysis (BEA) to identify a letter-formation intervention for a second-grade student with handwriting difficulties. The results suggested that the BEA led to differentiated results for letter formation interventions, and the identified intervention was implemented for 8 weeks with moderate effectiveness. Suggestions for future research are included. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Academic skills are frequent concerns in K-12 schools that could benefit from the application of applied behavior analysis (ABA). Brief experimental analysis (BEA) of academic performance is perhaps the most promising approach to apply ABA to student learning. Although research has consistently demonstrated the effectiveness of academic interventions developed from BEA data, research on BEA is in its infancy. The current article suggests that BEA is consistent with the principles of ABA described by Baer et al. (J Appl Behav Anal 37:111–114, ) and describes the special series. The special series includes five studies and one commentary that further the evolution of BEA research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brief experimental analysis (BEA) can be used to specify intervention characteristics that produce positive learning gains for individual students. A key challenge to the use of BEA for intervention planning is the identification of performance indicators (including topography of the skill, measurement characteristics, and decision criteria) that meaningfully relate to longer term success in the learning environment. This study investigates the utility of various curriculum-based assessment and measurement estimates of mathematics performance for predicting functional outcomes (i.e., retention of learned skills over time and faster learning of related content in the future). All children in grades 2–5 at the participating school participated in protocol-based computational fluency-building intervention 4 days per week for an entire school year. Specific criteria were applied each week to systematically increase intervention difficulty classwide according to a pre-established sequence of computational skill objectives. Three measurements were routinely obtained. Each week children completed a timed probe of the skill for which intervention was currently occurring and a timed probe of previously mastered skills from the sequence of computational skill objectives. Each month, all children completed a timed probe of mathematics skills representing computational skills that students were expected to master by year’s end at each grade level. At all grade levels, learning a skill that appeared early in the hierarchy or sequence of skills related positively to learning of future related and more complex computational skills. Fluency criteria were specified that predicted retention of the skill over several months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was an investigation into the effectiveness of a color-coded, onset-rime–based decoding intervention with first-graders at serious risk for reading disabilities using a single-subject multiple probe design. Students increased their ability to decode instructional words on average 73% over baseline. For novel words from instructed rime patterns, scores increased by an average of 56%. Transfer at the vowel level to uninstructed rime patterns was limited, with scores improving by an average of 29%. Students maintained decoding gains at 1-week and 1-month maintenance. While acknowledging the difficulty in predicting reading disabilities based on first-grade performance, the effectiveness of the early intervention is a promising step in finding an instructional approach that is successful with the most at risk or disabled students who often do not respond to effective remedial programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Vaginismus is commonly described as a persistent difficulty in allowing vaginal entry of a penis or other object. Lifelong vaginismus occurs when a woman has never been able to have intercourse. A replicated single-case A-B-phase design was used to investigate the effectiveness of therapist-aided exposure for lifelong vaginismus. A baseline period (Phase A) was contrasted with exposure + follow-up (Phase B), using random switching between phases. The main outcome measure (intercourse ability) was assessed daily for 24 weeks. Ten women participated. The exposure consisted of a maximum of three 2-hr sessions during 1 week at a university hospital. The participant performed vaginal penetration exercises on herself, in the presence of a female therapist. Two follow-up sessions were scheduled over a 5-week period. Nine of the 10 participants reported having intercourse after treatment, and in 5 of the 9, intercourse was possible within the 1st week of treatment. The results remained at 1-year follow-up. Furthermore, exposure was successful in decreasing fear and negative penetration beliefs posttreatment and at 3-month and 1-year follow-ups. Therapist-aided exposure appears to be an effective treatment for lifelong vaginismus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article describes and field-tests the improvement rate difference (IRD), a new effect size for summarizing single-case research data. Termed "risk difference" in medical research, IRD expresses the difference in successful performance between baseline and intervention phases. IRD can be calculated from visual analysis of nonoverlapping data, and is easily explained to most educators. IRD entails few data assumptions and has confidence intervals. The article applies IRD to 166 published data series, correlates results with three other effect sizes: R², Kruskal-Wallis W, and percent of nonoverlapping data (PND), and reports interrater reliability of the IRD hand scoring. The major finding is that IRD is a promising effect size for single-case research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents a sobering view of the discipline of cognitive neuropsychology as practiced over the last three or four decades. Our judgment is that, although the study of abnormal cognition resulting from brain injury or disease in previously normal adults has produced a catalogue of fascinating and highly selective deficits, it has yielded relatively little advance in understanding how the brain accomplishes its cognitive business. We question the wisdom of the following three “choices” in mainstream cognitive neuropsychology: (a) single-case methodology, (b) dissociation between functions as the most important source of evidence, and (c) a central goal of diagramming the functional architecture of cognition rather than specifying how its components work. These choices may all stem from an excessive commitment to strict and fine-grained modularity. Although different brain regions are undoubtedly specialized for different functions, we argue that parallel and interactive processing is a better assumption about cognitive processing. The essential goal of specifying representations and processes can, we claim, be significantly assisted by computational modeling which, by its very nature, requires such specification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]