Search

Subsistence Bhutanese farmers spread across different agro-ecological zones maintain large species and varietal diversity of different crops in their farm. However, no studies have been undertaken yet to assess why farmers conserve and maintain large agro-biodiversity, the extent of agro-ecological richness, species richness, estimated loss of traditional varieties and threats to the loss of on-farm agro-biodiversity. Information on the number of varieties cultivated by the farmers for six important staple crops were collected from nine districts and twenty sub-districts spread across six different agro-ecological zones of the country to understand farmers reasons for maintaining on-farm crop diversity, estimate agro-ecological richness, species richness and the overall loss of traditional varieties, to know the famers’ level of awareness on climate change and the different threats to crop diversity. The results from this study indicated that an overwhelming 93% of the respondents manage and use agro-biodiversity for household food security and livelihood. The average agro-ecological richness ranged from 1.17 to 2.26 while the average species richness ranged from 0.50 to 2.66. The average agro-ecological richness indicates a large agro-ecological heterogeneity in terms of the different species of staple crops cultivated. The average species richness on the other hand shows that agro-ecological heterogeneity determines the type and extent of the cultivation of the six different staple cereals under consideration. The overall loss of traditional varieties in a time period of 20 years stands at 28.57%. On climate change, 94% of the farmers recognize that local climate is changing while 86% responded that they are aware of the potential impacts of climate change on their livelihoods. Climate change and associated factors was considered the most imminent threat to the management and loss of on-farm agro-biodiversity. The results from this study indicate that on-farm agro-biodiversity conservation, development and utilization programs have to be more specific to the different agro-ecological zones considering the agro-ecological heterogeneity. Attention has to be given to individual crops that have low average species richness and high percentage of loss of traditional varieties. The impact of climate change could offset the traditional seed system which primarily supports the persistence of on-farm agro-biodiversity in several ways.

The survey aims at assessing current managing status of organizations involves in the conservation of local genetic diversity of rice, maize, sorghum and pearl millet in seedbanks located in northern Côte d’Ivoire. An investigation was conducted with 100 respondents in charge of cereal seedbanks managing from Ferkessedougou and Ouangolodougou areas. The results at regional scale revealed two co-existing informal and formal systems for seedbanks management in these areas. The farmers’ seedbanks system or informal system was the main source of cereal seed supply for farmers and more important than the national or formal seedbank system. Only, farmers’ seedbanks of two crops, rice and maize were found in visited localities. The management of these farmers’ seedbanks was enabled by associations or cooperatives gathering more men (78.27%) than women (21.73%). Ninety percent (90%) of respondents were identified as saving 1 to 3 traditional varieties of cereal in these seedbanks managed by farmers in the studied region. The reveled difficulties in the farmers’ seedbanks management appeared mainly as informally organized seed system that must be a complementary approach to formal system or national seed system for genetic diversity preservation of local cereal varieties and also as a distribution channel of improved cereal varieties.

Seed quality is of increasing importance to the rice industry. Therefore, an efficient seed-provisioning system is considered as an essential element of India’s overall rice strategy. The principal objective of this chapter is to analyze the current structure and performance of various players in the current seed system in order to draw a meaningful outlook on India’s rice seed sector. The chapter discusses four key aspects of the seed system: (1) structure, roles, and current status of key participating entities in the seed system; (2) hybrid rice technology and its seed system; (3) the current policy environment; and (4) key challenges and future outlook.

We consider solving linear systems with multiple shifts and multiple right-hand sides. In order to solve these linear systems efficiently, we develop the Shifted Block BiCGGR method. This method is based on the shift-invariance property of Block Krylov subspaces. Using this property, the Shifted systems can be solved in the process of solving the Seed system without matrix-vector multiplications. The Shifted Block BiCGGR method can generate high accuracy approximate solutions of the Seed system. However, the accuracy of the approximate solutions of the Shifted systems may deteriorate due to the error of the matrix multiplications appearing in the algorithm. In this paper, we improve the accuracy of the approximate solutions of the Shifted systems generated by the Shifted Block BiCGGR method.

This article analyses the development of a system for producing and distributing hybrid oil palm seedlings to small-scale famers. The existing seed system had become so corrupted that the seedlings actually planted were largely of unimproved kinds. The article describes institutional experiments carried out by two Innovation Platforms (IPs) in order to improve the oil palm seed system. Theory Guided Process Inquiry was used to document, evaluate and analyse these interventions. The experiments catalysed changes in inter-personal and inter-organisational power relationships that enabled further co-learning and co-construction of understanding and action among key stakeholders in the oil palm domain. The IPs and those who became local champions of seed system innovation, also triggered change in institutional behaviours, technologies, and practices that further improved the integrity of the seed system. Official nursery holders must now be trained, registered and licensed by local government. Farmers are encouraged to source hybrid seedlings only from licensed nurseries. These achievements were then shared and discussed with officials and higher level government leaders, drawing on IP members’ pre-existing professional and personal networks. Improvement of the oil palm seed system was included in the government's latest 5-year development plan.

In Africa, it is mostly the informal seed system that ensures farmers’ seed supply. This is partly because the formal seed systems are not always effective in meeting demand for new seed varieties. Sometimes informal seed recycling and exchange of improved sorghum varieties will take place alongside formal initiatives, as is the case in southern Mali. Focusing on one particular village in the Dioila district, we analyze the efficacy of farmers’ strategies for preserving varietal seed purity and genetic integrity of an improved inbred-line (Soumba variety). Six seed lots of Soumba, recycled for two to six years by farmers using different practices, were collected and assessed in on-station trials in order to compare their agronomic performance and phenotypic purity (off-type plant frequencies) with control versions of the variety. Additionally, 30 panicle samples were randomly collected from five farmer fields sown with recycled Soumba and assessed for phenotypic purity in a progeny nursery and investigated for molecular diversity using 12 SSR markers. A total of 150 panicles from five other non-Soumba varieties were collected in the village in order to investigate eventual gene flow and its potential genetic consequences for the Soumba variety. In fields sown with recycled Soumba seed, between 2% and 14% of plants showed phenotypic deviations from the typical Soumba variety. The progeny nursery and SSR marker analysis verified the presence of the off-type plants observed in the field. The STRUCTURE program revealed admixtures with other varieties in 23% of Soumba plants, confirming the presence of gene flow. Gene diversity values in Soumba samples ranged from 0.006 for the commercial sample to 0.257 for recycled samples. Introgression and contamination were best minimized when (1) farmers had received specific training in seed production, (2) they could take advantage of isolated fields and (3) they could practise true-to-type panicle selection. Farmers were generally able to maintain the phenotype, as well as sustain or even improve yield performance of their Soumba variety while at the same time genetically enriching their seed stock.

Findings of study related to seed and seed initiatives in seven districts encompassing different classes of seed systems have been explained. Source seed produced by public and private institutions in Nepal is illustrated to make proper analogue as to how seed systems could be made practically functional. SWOT analysis of important seed systems is compared in issues pertaining to seed systems in Nepal. Information received from the seed related stakeholders has been analyzed to draw the inference covering different seed system initiatives in Nepal. On the basis of scientific evidences collected from concerned stakeholders from cross section of study districts on various issues of seed, recommendations have been proposed to make effective seed systems by amalgamation of available seed production initiatives under single funneled seed system that could be implemented to sustain food security and enhanced productivity of crops in general and major food crops in particular in Nepal. Agronomy Journal of Nepal (Agron JN) Vol. 3. 2013, Page 1-10 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ajn.v3i0.8981

Although potatoes are the second most valuable crop in Kenya, poor seed potato quality has limited industry expansion. The objectives of this study were to describe the seed potato system, identify problems, determine use of high-quality seed and estimate farmer willingness to pay (WTP) for different types of seed. Data was collected from interviews, forums and surveys. A contingent valuation method (CVM) model was also developed to analyze the factors that influence farmer WTP. It was found that the seed system consists of three sub-components: Formal, Semi-Formal and Farmer. More than 96 % of Kenya seed potatoes were produced in the Farmer category, and were considered to be poor quality. Growers identified bacterial wilt, viral diseases and late blight as the most serious problems. The WTP model revealed that farmer age, distance to seed source, potato training, gender and region were statistically significant explanatory variables. The study recommends that training be conducted to increase production of “clean seed” and “positively-selected seed” in the Semi-Formal part of the seed system.

Rice (Oryza sativa) is the main crop of Nepal. Farmers in Nepal mostly use seed from their stock in the form of informal seed systems which is around 92.3% of total seed requirements. In Nepal, formal seed of rice is distributed mostly by public institutions and very nominal amount by private seed dealers. Unavailability of quality seed of preferred variety is the key issue for rice seed systems. This study tries to attempt to address existing rice seed supply systems in Nepal thereby understanding its opportunities and constraints. The study was undertaken by collecting information from various documented sources and primary data from the household survey done at Chitwan and some seed related institutions during 2010/11. Formal and the informal are the two dimensions of the seed system for rice. Farm saved seed and farmers- to- farmers exchange of seed are informal seed system whereas private seed dealers and public institutions’ involvement in the seed sector are formal seed systems. Due to dominant of informal seed systems, there is the low seed replacement rate of 8.7% for rice. Nevertheless, breeder seed is solely produced by different Research Centers of Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC), whereas foundation seed is produced by NARC Research Centers and other institutes as well. This amount of source seed does not seem enough to cover rice areas of the country. To tackle problem of seed insufficiency, quality of source seed should be maintained by public institutions aside from creating awareness to farmers by service providers about the importance of producing certified seed by using foundation seed in farmers’ field. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/ajn.v2i0.7531 Agronomy Journal of Nepal (Agron JN) Vol. 2: 2011 pp.157-167

Forage plant has multipurposes as feed, cover crop, erosion control, remediation on heavy metal contaminated soil, medicine, as well as textile and food coloring. Seed is a part of plant used for plant multiplication. National seed system covers germplasm management, breeding, seed production and its distribution. Therefore, forage seed production is an important aspect to be concerned. Forage seed production system has to produce high quality seed with optimum yield. There has not been any forage seed producer which ensures the quality of seed produced in accordance to seed certification requirement as those in food crop, horticulture or estate crop. Seed quality aspect covers genetic, physiology and physical quality. Seed stock certification is to guarantee that the distributed seeds have genetic identity, pure and high quality.

In Ethiopia, use of low-quality seed potatoes by the majority of potato growers is associated with underdevelopment of the seed potato value chains. Three seed potato systems are present in Ethiopia: the informal seed system, the alternative seed system and the formal seed system. This chapter analyses the performance of seed potato value chains with respect to their ability to supply quality seed tubers to seed potato systems, by using the chain performance drivers enabling environment, technology, market structure, chain coordination, farm management, and inputs. Information obtained from literature review, secondary data and key informants’ interviews were used for the analysis. In the informal seed system, seed potato value chains suffered from a poor enabling environment such as a low quality technical support and lack of a seed quality control system; use of sub-optimal storage and transportation technologies, sub-optimal farm management practices; and little use of inputs. In the alternative seed system, main constraints were the lack of a seed potato quality control system, poor farm management practices, little use of inputs by seed potato growers, and a distorted seed potato market that resulted from involvement of institutional buyers. Chains in the formal seed potato system were characterised by little involvement of the private and public sectors in the production and supply of seed potatoes. Based on the analysis, improvement options for the three seed systems were identified.

There is a considerable shortage of improved seed in Ethiopia. Despite good reasons to invest in this market, private sector investments are not occurring. Using an institutional economics theoretical framework, this chapter analyzes the formal Ethiopian seed system and identifies transaction costs to find potential starting points for institutional innovations. Analyzing data from more than 50 expert interviews conducted in Ethiopia, it appears that transaction costs are high along the whole seed value chain and mainly born by the government, as public organizations dominate the Ethiopian seed system, leaving little room for the private sector. However, recent direct marketing pilots are a signal of careful efforts towards market liberalization.

The Second Strategic Meeting of the Global Cassava Partnership for the 21st Century (GCP21) was held at The Rockefeller Foundation Bellagio Center, Bellagio, Italy, November 2–5, 2010, and was attended by 30 researchers from 14 countries dedicated to the genetic improvement of cassava. GCP21 was created in 2002, when many of the world’s leading cassava researchers gathered at The Bellagio Center to create a partnership dedicated to leveraging the tools of modern biotechnology and plant breeding to make cassava a more productive and resilient crop. GCP21’s goal is to enhance global food security, sustainable production, and economic opportunity for millions of people though the development and deployment of improved cassava varieties. Its purpose is to improve coordination between cassava researchers and breeders and to ensure their work is responsive to the needs of consumers, processors, markets, and good agronomic practices. Two objectives of priority to GCP21 are

Many problems in science and engineering fields require the solution of shifted linear systems. To solve these systems efficiently, the recycling BiCG algorithm in is extended in this paper. However, the shift-invariant property could no longer hold over the augmented Krylov subspace due to adding the recycling spaces. To remedy this situation, a strategy that constructs multiple recycling spaces is adopted and then a short-term recurrence for the solution update of the shifted system is derived when the seed system is solving. The new method not only improves the convergence but also has a potential to simultaneously compute approximate solutions for shifted linear systems using only as many matrix-vector multiplications as the one that a single system requires. In addition, some numerical experiments also confirm the efficiency of our method.

The formal seed sector only meets a small proportion of farmers' rice seed requirements in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. To cope with the growing demands, farmers have organized themselves in seed clubs to produce and supply the needed seeds themselves. This study assesses the status of rice seed production and proposes a model of how to ensure adequate seed supply in the Mekong Delta. Data of total seed production, distribution, prices, and used varieties of each crop season was collected from 19 seed stations and 309 seed clubs in all the 13 provinces of the Delta for the whole year of 2008. One hundred sixty none farmers were interviewed about seed demand and supply. Effective demand of seed in the Mekong Delta was about 0.55 million tons/year. The formal seed system met 3.5% and the informal seed system supplied more 16% of needed amounts. The informal system had significantly lower seed prices, but more diversity of rice varieties than the formal seed system. Both seed systems supplied seeds of rice var...

A total of 206 wheat and 200 barley farmers were interviewed in northeastern Syria to understand farmer perceptions and practice relating to modern varieties, seed sources and seed quality. Wheat farmers had better awareness and grew modern varieties (87%), applied fertilizers (99.5%), herbicides (93%), seed treatment (90%) or insecticides (41%). In contrast barley growers had low awareness (36%) and use (0.5%) of modern varieties, herbicides (4%), insecticides (3%) and fertilizers (56%). Grain yield, grain size, food quality and tolerance to lodging, drought and frost were the agronomic characteristics farmers sought from new wheat varieties. For barley, grain yield, grain size, grain color, feed quality, marketability and tolerance to diseases and drought were the key traits sought. The informal sector-seed retained from the previous harvest or obtained from neighbors or local traders/markets-was the main source of seed for both wheat and barley. Most farmers practiced onfarm seed selection, cleaning, treatment, separate storage or quality assessment of seed that was obtained locally. Farmers’ perceptions and preferences of new varieties/technologies and their seed sources and seed management practices must be taken into account in any efforts to develop or to strengthen seed sector development

This paper analyzes how local seed system institutions support seed diversity, itself a requirement for agrobiodiversity maintained on-farm. The paper focuses on maize seed diversity in the central Peruvian Amazon. Using household and community level data from three different cultural groups from the central Peruvian Amazon, empirical results show the importance of collective action and the mediating role of ethnicity in the functioning of informal seed systems that in turn affect farmers’ choices regarding conservation of seed diversity. This implies that policies are needed to protect the relatively open seed exchanges of such local practices as a way to sustain on-farm agrobiodiversity.

This paper examines the performance of the Indian seed system with reference to high-volume, low-value seed crops, using case studies of potato and groundnut. For both crops, traditional sources of seed meet more than two-thirds of the total demand and the rest is met by the organized sector, mainly public seed agencies. Most farmers buy fresh seed for reasons of quality, and only 12–15% purchase seed to change varieties. Technological innovations that increase the multiplication rate and improve the quality of seed provide a significant cost advantage in potato, and therefore have attracted the private sector's participation. This trend has been strengthened by the availability of source seed from public plant breeding programmes. However, it is unlikely that self-pollinated crops will attract private investment in plant breeding in the near future. Therefore, the public research system should continue to take responsibility for plant breeding and develop partnerships with the private sector to promote decentralized seed production and distribution. The development of supply chains, especially for premium markets, is another way to attract commercial interest in the seed as well as the product market.

Local seed systems, which supply about 99% of bean seeds in the east and central Africa regions, are progressively being supported as an alternative to facilitate the accessibility of improved bean varieties to farmers. However, these systems have been rightly or wrongly criticized for supplying substandard quality seeds. This study was carried out to assess the seed health of different seed grades from different sources of two popular Ethiopian bean varieties. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (T-RFLP) were used to detect fungal and bacterial pathogens of the major bean seed-borne diseases. The ELISA test was used to assess the status of the bean common mosaic virus (BCMV). No fungal or bacterial pathogens were detected in the seeds. However, BCMV was detected in almost all sources except seed from one untrained farmer and one grain merchant. The study findings provide evidence about the capacity of the local seed system to produce and supply seed of an...

The International Potato Center (CIP) and collaborating institutions implemented an intensive research programme over a period of 25–30 years on the use of botanical seed of potato as an alternative way of growing a potato crop. The use of botanical or ‘true’ potato seed (TPS) had many advantages over the use of seed tubers. Potentially, the use of TPS was especially attractive for small-scale farmers in developing countries. The difference of using TPS as compared to using seed tubers meant in many respects the development of a new crop–commodity chain, requiring research on breeding, seed production, agronomy and marketing aspects. This research made it possible to produce potatoes from TPS at commercial scale: it removed a number of important constraints in the uniformity and earliness of the TPS varieties and in seed physiology. Experimentation and adoption by farmers in a wide range of countries showed that the technological advantages of using TPS were only translating in economical benefits as compared to tuber seed when the last one was costly or not available. Since the economic performance of seed tubers is likely to continue to fluctuate, TPS remains an interesting alternative. Study of the use of TPS in various countries could contribute to better understanding of factors that promote or inhibit crop technology innovation. The article gives an overview of the various areas of TPS research in CIP and presents information on the application of TPS technology in several developing countries.

Replacement of crop landraces by modern varieties is thought to cause diversity loss. We studied genetic erosion in maize within a model system; modernized smallholder agriculture in southern Mexico. The local seed supply was described through interviews and in situ seed collection. In spite of the dominance of commercial seed, the informal seed system was found to persist. True landraces were rare and most informal seed was derived from modern varieties (creolized). Seed lots were characterized for agronomical traits and molecular markers. We avoided the problem of non-consistent nomenclature by taking individual seed lots as the basis for diversity inference. We defined diversity as the weighted average distance between seed lots. Diversity was calculated for subsets of the seed supply to assess the impact of replacing traditional landraces with any of these subsets. Results were different for molecular markers, ear- and vegetative/flowering traits. Nonetheless, creolized varieties showed low diversity for all traits. These varieties were distinct from traditional landraces and little differentiated from their ancestral stocks. Although adoption of creolized maize into the informal seed system has lowered diversity as compared to traditional landraces, genetic erosion was moderated by the distinct features offered by modern varieties.

Seed is among the most important production resources that greatly influence productivity. The challenge in Kenya is to put in place seed production and delivery systems that encourage wider use of quality seed throughout the marketing chain. The objective of this review is to understand the relationship between seed systems in Kenya and on-farm conservation of food crops. The findings show that while a formal seed system exists in Kenya, majority of farmers rely on an informal seed system for planting most agricultural commodities, and often continue to recycle seed, resulting in persistent low yields. Major crops as well as commercial crops are dominated by the formal seed system, whereas orphaned crops as well as poor farmers have no place in the formal system.

Farmer's seed system is defined as a system in which seed selection, seed production, seed storage, management and seed diffusion are integrated with crop production. The seed quality, seed storage, seed protection and seed security are important parts of seed system. The objectives of this study were to assess in sorghum: 1) the quality of farmer-produced seed, 2) the seed management, storage and protection, and 3) level and factors of seed security in the region. The on-farm seed quality for sorghum was comparatively good. The average germination for the three varieties tested was 82.8%. The conventional purity (varietal) level of 98% was not met due to the dominant practice of varietal mixture in the region. However, varietal component-wise it met the standard. However, if we suppose that the varieties mixed as a normal component of a farmers' seed lot, then the mean purity of 97% of 10 farmers met the national and regional West Asia and North Africa (WANA) standard. Farmers have various on-fa...

The seeds that form the basis of all agricultural production are the focus of Devlin Kuyek’s article. Building on regime theory, he argues that, historically, the Canadian seed system has been marked by three “seed regimes.” The third regime, still being constructed, and contested, entails measures that transfer control of seeds to a few transnational corporations. While this involves relaxing some state regulations, he shows that it also involves reorienting many old regulations and creating a whole new set, in particular in the area of intellectual property rights, which protect corporate profits and prohibit farmer practices of earlier regimes. He suggests that the result of this regime, if stabilized, will be to make genetically modified (GM) crops, and enhanced corporate control, a permanent feature of Canadian agriculture.

The establishment of intellectual property rights (IPRs) for plant varieties has caused considerable controversy, but there is relatively little empirical evidence on performance and options in developing countries. This paper summarizes the results of a recent five-country study, concentrating on the conduct of plant variety protection (PVP) regimes. It examines PVP in the context of other mechanisms that provide incentives for plant breeding. It discusses the principal options available to developing countries and examines the ability of PVP to offer protection from competing firms and from on-farm seed saving. It also looks at the administrative and management requirements of PVP regimes. Although the paper does not discuss patent protection for biotechnology it examines the IPR requirements for the introduction of transgenic varieties. Developing countries need to establish an appropriate PVP system, but PVP should be seen as part of a broader strategy for seed system development.

The study relates village seed systems to biological diversity of millet crops grown by farmers in the semi-arid lands of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, India. In these subsistence-oriented, semi-arid production systems the environment is marginal for crop growth and often there is no substitute for millet crops. Across communities, farmers grow 13 different combinations of pearl millet, sorghum, finger millet, little millet, and foxtail millet varieties, but individual farmers grow an average of only 2–3 millet varieties per season. The “village seed system” in this study refers to all channels through which farmers acquire genetic materials, separate from or in interaction with the commercial seed industry, observed at the local level. Data are compiled through household surveys and interviews with traders and dealers in village and district markets. Based on the concept of the seed lot, several seed system parameters are defined and measured by millet crop. Most seed transactions, including gifts of seed, appear to be monetized. Seed supply channels differ by improvement status of the genetic material. Regression results confirm that seed system parameters are statistically significant determinants of the spatial diversity of millet crops measured at the village level. Furthermore, both the trade through weekly village markets (shandies) and through the formal seed supply channel contribute positively to the breadth of genetic materials in these communities. Ways should be found to strengthen and improve the overall efficiency of the seed system, including both formal and informal channels, in order to reduce the costs to farmers of procuring and managing diverse crop varieties.

International audience; Plant breeding is a high resource consuming activity. As such, mechanisms have been set to protect crops cultivars and favour investments in plant breeding activities. Several countries have adopted either the patent system or a sui generis system to protect cultivars. In 2013, Ghana passed the Plant Breeder Bill, a sui generis system. The bill has not been enforced yet but several benefits for farmers, breeders and agriculture in the country have been predicted. This paper discusses the most probable implications of the Plant Breeder Bill on breeding activities in Ghana. Information was collected from key informants and the literature related to the experience in other countries where the Plant Breeders " Right has been enforced. It came out that the implementation of the plant breeder Bill in Ghana is likely to attract private investment. More investments would be devoted to breeding of hybrid varieties in high commercial value crops. The probable increase of investment on breeding activities is likely to make available more new varieties offering more available starting material for breeding programs. However, the enforcement of the 2 Bill without the creation of incentive environment notably in seed system would not be enough to reach the predicted benefits. Furthermore, the development of new varieties is likely to result in the replacement of existing varieties including landraces leading to genetic erosion. To overcome this, extensive collection of landraces and conservation strategies need to be undertaken.

Agricultural risk management is a central issue that Mozambique faces in development, and multiple stakeholders have analyzed this challenge, sometimes with different terminology and focusing on varying aspects. The government of Mozambique has adopted the strategic plan for agricultural development (PEDSA 2010-19) that focuses on: (i) increasing the availability of food in order to reduce hunger through growth in small producer productivity and emergency response capacity; (ii) enlarging the land area under sustainable management and the number of reliable water management systems; (iii) increasing access to the market through improved infrastructures and interventions in marketing; and (iv) improving research and extension for increased adoption of appropriate technologies by producers and agro-processors. The World Bank’s agriculture sector risk assessment takes a holistic approach and relies on long time-series historical data to arrive at an empirical and objective assessment of agricultural risks and their impacts on Mozambique. This assessment will form the basis of the second step, solution assessment, whose final findings will inform National Investment Plan for the Agrarian Sector in Mozambique (PNISA). This document considers the many aspects of assessing risk in the Mozambican agriculture sector. Chapter one gives introduction and context. Chapter two introduces the major characteristics of the agricultural system leading into chapter three, which presents a comprehensive picture of the risks that exist in the sector. Chapter four, in quantifying the risks that have been observed, comments on the losses that have been incurred by the sector because of production risks, whereas chapter five provides a qualitative discussion of how risk has an effect on the different stakeholders present in the sector. Chapter six delves into the risk prioritization carried out by the team and then comments on various management measures. The report concludes with chapter six, in which recommendations are provided for improving risk management in Mozambique.

Yam production is constrained by scarcity of clean seed, pests, diseases and low soil fertility in the informal seed system, which is still operational, causing up to 90% yield losses. Although meristem culture can be effective for producing healthy seed yam, its use is limited by slow rate of regeneration and propagation in conventional tissue cultures. In most crops tested, temporary immersion bioreactor systems (TIBs) increased propagation rates. To determine the potential of TIBs in improving the yam seed system, 23 databases were consulted and three returned a total of eight publications with only 2 for Dioscorea rotundata-cayenensis . Both plantlets and microtubers can be produced in TIBs, which will facilitate production of quality breeder, foundation and certified seeds and fast-track genetic improvement and the evolution of a formal from informal seed production system. Control of contamination, direct use of field explants, culture of micro-explants like immature embryos and anthers, increasing the size of microtubers produced and standardization for various economically important yam genotypes are knowledge gaps that require immediate research attention. No report has put a cost on yam TIBs, but it will be necessary to use cost-effective TIBs to encourage integration public-private partnerships into emerging formal seed system. Keywords: Tissue culture, healthy seed yam, temporary immersion bioreactors, dioscorea spp. African Journal of Biotechnology , Vol 13(14), 1614-1622

Agricultural diversification is one way of meeting the future challenges associated with climate change and population growth, making farmers’ access to a diversity of high-yielding, good quality cultivars critical. In this paper we provide an overview of the seed system in the Nordic region from the 1950 to the present. The emphasisis on breeding businesses and their production of cultivars. Key primary sources have been the national variety lists, other written sources on plant breeding, and a survey. We document how enterprises have merged and how this consolidation process has affected the production of new cultivars and led to an emphasis on major crops, resulting in the abandonment of breeding activities for several other crops. The results are discussed in relation to structures and in the broader context of agrobiodiversity issues in peripheral regions of the world.

This study examines the seed supply system for maize production in Southwestern Nigeria in order to characterise the local seed system and to assess the potentials of the maize seed sector in the development of sustainable crop improvement and enhanced agricultural productivity. Using structured questionnaires, a seed survey was conducted among 94 farmers randomly sampled from 5 farm settlement locations covering 3 states in the region. The data collected were subjected to descriptive analysis of simple proportions and percentages. All improved varieties on the sampled farms were the IITA elite varieties. At all locations, the percentage of total land area cultivated with the seeds of improved varieties ranged from 71 to 100%, while percentage of land area sown with local varieties ranged from 0 to 29%. Seed use in terms of volume followed the same pattern. The highest proportion of farmers (about 50%) who planted improved varieties used seeds from previously saved harvests, while 25% procured th...

Farmers' seed system is defined as a system in which seed selection, seed production, seed storage, seed management and seed diffusion are integrated with crop production. Formal seed system is the one that is run by formal private and public seed companies. Farmers indicated that when they started sorghum farming the seed of farmers' varieties (FVs) they obtained was normally a gift from the parents and relatives. Thereafter own stock was the predominant seed source. However, for the improved varieties (IVs) purchasing was the common initial source. The current seed source is predominantly own stock. The farmers' seed system was dominantly dependent on the FVs. Consequently, the demand for IVs is very low. The weather conditions partly affect the seed-sourcing pattern. In a bad cropping season, farmers were forced to use seed sources other than own stock; namely, purchase, gift, exchange and loan. Genetic diversity dictated the pattern of seed sources. High on-farm genetic diversity leads to mor...

This paper explores social arrangements associated with seed transactions among small-scale maize farmers in the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Mexico, where no formal seed supply system exists. We test the hypothesis that individual farmers have strong incentives to participate in some form of collective action to ensure their access to seed. Six communities were studied, three of them in detail, using in-depth, semistructured interviews with key informants; focus group discussions; and a tracer study that followed seed flows among farmers. Farmers mostly saved seed and only occasionally acquired seed from outside sources. We found no evidence of a specialized social organization based on collective action to mediate seed flows. Seed transactions are infrequent, bilateral, and ad hoc, although trust is an important component, as it ensures reliable information about the seed is provided. Implications of these findings are discussed, especially for genetic diversity if the current supply system breaks down.

This paper analyzes some important issues surrounding possible deployment of genetically engineered (GE) insect-resistant potato in Peru, based on a large farmer survey held in Peru in 2003. We found that the formal seed system plays a limited role compared with the informal seed system, especially for smallholder farmers. Although 97% of smallholder farmers would buy seed of an insect-resistant variety, a majority would buy it only once every 2 to 4 years. Survey data show that farmers would be willing to pay a premium of 50% on seed cost for insect resistant varieties. Paying price premiums of 25% to 50%, farmers would still increase their net income, assuming insect resistance is high and pesticide use will be strongly reduced. Of all farmers, 55% indicated preference for insect-resistant potato in varieties other than their current varieties. The survey indicates that smallholder farmers are interested to experiment with new varieties and have a positive perception of improved varieties. Based on these findings, and considering the difficulties implementing existing biosafety regulatory systems such as those in place in the U.S. and E.U., we propose to develop a variety-based segregation system to separate GE from conventionally bred potatoes. In such a system, which would embrace the spread of GE potatoes through informal seed systems, only a limited number of sterile varieties would be introduced that are easily distinguishable from conventional varieties.

The seed method is used for solving multiple linear systems A (i) x (i)=b(i) for 1⩽i≤s, where the coefficient matrix A (i) and the right-hand side b (i) are different in general. It is known that the CG method is an effective method for symmetric coefficient matrices A (i). In this paper, the FOM method is employed to solve multiple linear systems when coefficient matrices are non-symmetric matrices. One of the systems is selected as the seed system which generates a Krylov subspace, then the residuals of other systems are projected onto the generated Krylov subspace to get the approximate solutions for the unsolved ones. The whole process is repeated until all the systems are solved.

To characterise the local seed system and assess the potentials of the vegetable seed sector, a seed survey was conducted in five villages within three states of South Western Nigeria. Using structured questionnaires, 94 farmers from five farm settlement locations covering Ogun, Osun and Oyo states of Nigeria were randomly queried on types of varieties that they propagate, their seed sources, and factors that determined their seed choices. The data collected were subjected to descriptive analysis of simple proportions and percentages. At all the locations, the use of seeds of improved varieties for production of vegetable crops in terms of hectares cultivated was predominant over that of local varieties – 100% use of seeds of improved varieties in many cases. About 60% of vegetable farmers sourced seeds from their previously saved harvests, while about 30% purchased seeds from dealers over the 3 years covered by the survey. About 33% of vegetable farmers would select seeds of varieties to cultivate based on high potential crop yield and 32% based on consumer preferences, while 25% of farmers would select seeds of a variety if only it is readily available. The results showed that farmers’ demand for the seeds of improved varieties could be elicited with availability of varieties that meet production challenges (high yields) and market needs (consumer preferences). The implications of the results with respect to prospects for commercial vegetable breeding and seed production were discussed. But indications are that the seed system can be improved when crop breeders and seed producers regularly evaluate the dynamics of consumer quality preferences and continuously generate varieties that satisfy them.

The effects of secondary metabolites in different Vigna species on the development of Clavigralla tomentosicollis were investigated in an artificial seed system using different fractions of crude pod extracts, while the orientation response of this pod-bug to volatile extracts was studied using a dual-choice olfactometer. Feeding on the neutral fraction extracts, in contrast to the basic and acidic fractions, resulted in significantly higher mortalities, longer total developmental time, and lower growth index of the insects in comparison with controls. All volatile extracts elicited an avoidance reaction by C. tomentosicollis, except the volatile from the susceptible genotype IT84S-2246 which generally attracted as many insects as controls. Extracts from wild Vigna species showed higher activity than those from their cultivated relatives. The present study which has established that most secondary metabolites in cowpea pods were localized in the neutral fraction of the crude extract, could facilitate experiments on the separation and characterization of the toxic factors involved.

We present a seed method for solving large nonsymmetric linear systems with multiple right-hand sides. The method uses a single augmented Krylov subspace corresponding to a seed system as a generator of approximations to the nonseed systems. The residual evaluate of the method is shown, and a new strategy to form a seed system which could supply information shareable among the right-hand sides is given. Numerical experiments indicate that our seed selection strategy is more efficient than two existing strategies and our method has significant time saving compared with the block GMRES method and the GMRES method with a projection process.

Across East Africa, national seed policies and commercial seed enterprises have focused on increasing farmers’ access to modern seed varieties. These new varieties are developed and delivered to farmers via the formal seed system, which is comprised of government and private sector seed breeders, processors, and vendors. However, the formal seed system only provides a small share (

Bacterial wilt (caused by Ralstonia solanacearum ) has spread to all potato growing areas in Kenya, affecting over 70% of potato farms and causing yield losses of between 50 to 100%; it is followed by late blight affecting 67% and viral diseases (12%). The disease was first reported in Kenya in 1945 around the Embu area from where it spread to other parts of the country. The disease is believed to have been introduced with tuber seeds imported from Europe. In potatoes, the bacteria is tuber borne and is primarily disseminated through infected seed tubers. It is further spread through infected run-off water or soil adhering to tools and shoes. Infected seed tubers from bacterial wilt infested areas have mainly contributed to the spread of the disease to many potato producing areas in Kenya; this is mainly a consequence of the informal potato seed system prevalent in the country. Because the country produces less than 1.1 % of her national certified seed requirement, most farmers are forced to plant seeds from informal sources such as farm-saved (self supply), local markets or neighbours. The certified seeds are also highly priced thereby discouraging most small scale farmers from using them. Although most farmers have been trained on production of clean seed from basic or certified seeds on their farms, such seeds (known as Quality Declared Seeds) are not recognised by the Kenyan law and their trade is illegal. With no option, potato growers continue using planting material from informal sources. With informal sources, seed quality cannot be assured. The situation is worsened by the uncontrolled and/or illegal cross border trade. In addition to the prevalence of informal seed systems, farmers are unaware and/ or are unable to apply affective measures for the control of bacterial wilt. From the foregoing, it is unlikely that bacterial wilt of potatoes will ever be tamed in Kenya. Unless all stakeholders tackle the problem collectively, the blame game will continue.