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Two experiments were conducted to determine independent effects of BW and DE intake on body composition and the partitioning of retained body energy between lipid and protein in pigs with high lean tissue growth potentials and when energy intake limited whole-body protein deposition. In a preliminary Imbalance experiment involving 20 entire male pigs at either 30 or 100 kg BW, it was established that whole-body protein deposition increased linearly (P < 0.05) with DE intake at both BW. These results indicate that DE intake controlled whole-body protein deposition and that these pigs did not achieve their maximum whole-body protein deposition when fed semi-ad libitum. In the main serial slaughter experiment, 56 pigs, with a BW of 15 kg, were assigned to one of four DE intake schemes and slaughtered at 40, 65, 90, or 115 kg BW. Within DE intake schemes, DE intake was increased linearly (P < 0.05) with BW, allowing for an assessment of effects of DE intake and slaughter BW on chemical and physical body composition (carcass, viscera, blood). Between 15 and 90 kg BW, average DE intake of 16.1, 20.9, 25.2, and 28.8 MJ/d supported average BW gains of 502, 731, 899, and 951 g/d, respectively. The proportion of whole-body protein present in the carcass increased with BW and decreased with DE intake (P < 0.05), whereas the distribution of whole-body lipid between carcass and viscera was not influenced by BW and DE intake. A mathematical relationship was developed to determine the relationship between DE intake at slaughter (MJ/d) and chemical body composition in these pigs: whole-body lipid-to-protein ratio = 1.236 -0.056 x (DE intake) + 0.0013 x (DE intake) 2 , r 2 = 0.71. The data suggests that absolute DE intake alone was an adequate predictor of chemical body composition in this population of entire male pigs over the BW and DE intake ranges that were evaluated, simplifying the characterization of this aspect of nutrition partitioning for growth in different pig populations.

An entire male Neopolitan mastiff, aged two years and eight months, presented with a history of chronic diarrhoea and weight loss. The diarrhoea had been present for approximately 12 months and had progressively worsened, with weight loss developing over an eight-week period prior to presentation. No primary gastrointestinal or metabolic cause for the diarrhoea could be identified. Echocardiography revealed a large, multilocular, cyst-like structure within the pericardium compressing the heart and displacing it to the right. The mass was surgically excised from the left ventricular myocardium. Histopathological examination showed it to be a low-grade malignant myxosarcoma. The dog made a full recovery and was still clinically normal nine months postoperatively, with no evidence of tumour recurrence or metastases. However, 11 months postsurgery, the clinical signs of diarrhoea and weight loss returned. Tumour recurrence with local metastasis was diagnosed and the dog was euthanased 358 days after the original surgery.

The aim of this project was to study the effects of feeding system (dry or wet feeding with whey), dietary lysine level and pre-slaughter routines on technological meat quality in entire male, female and castrated male pigs, which were carriers or non-carriers of the RN − allele. The feeding system only affected the yield of processed meat, resulting in lower Napole yield (87.5% vs 89.4%) for meat of whey fed pigs. Further, lower dietary lysine levels resulted in higher drip loss of the meat compared with high dietary levels (5.3% vs 4.8%). Mixing of unfamiliar pigs prior to slaughter led to meat with lower internal reflectance values (28.3 vs 32.2) and glucose+G-6-P concentrations of the meat juice (46.3 vs 49.7 μmol/ml) compared with pen-wise slaughtering. In comparison with non-carriers, RN − carriers had significantly lower ultimate pH, shear force values and water-holding capacity. Mixing of non-carrier pigs prior to slaughter gave higher Napole yield compared with those handled pen-wise. Females had...

Recent research has shown that pigs housed in large groups on deep-litter have longer feeding events with less disruption from other pigs compared to pigs maintained in conventional housing systems. It has been speculated that this change in feeding behaviour is associated with increased fat deposition and feed conversion ratio. An experiment was designed to examine the effect of different pen space allowance and feeder availability on the behaviour and growth performance of growing pigs in a deep-litter, large group system. A 2×2 factorial experiment examined the effects of pen space and feeder space from 10 to 23 weeks of age, using 2460 crossbred (Large White × Landrace) entire male (non-castrated) pigs. Pen space was either “unrestricted” (0.88 m2 per pig) or “restricted” (0.45–0.74 m2 per pig) and feeder space was either “unrestricted” (9 pigs per feeding space) or “restricted” (15 pigs per feeding space). There were 12 pens of pigs, each with a group size of 205 pigs and pelleted feed was offered ad libitum using double spaced, wet–dry feeders (41 cm wide feeding space). The four treatments were replicated three times and 10 animals per treatment per replicate were selected at random as focal animals for behaviour observations. Feeding behaviour was observed between 5:30 and 19:00 h using time-lapse video for 1 week at 10, 17 and 23 weeks of age. Treatment effects were analyzed using analysis of variance with the group used as the experimental unit. Reducing pen space reduced (P

Two studies compared the social and feeding behaviour of Large White×Landrace entire male (non-castrated) growing pigs housed in deep-litter, large group and conventional housing systems. In Study 1, an ethogram of behaviour was developed. The pigs were housed at 1 m2 per pig (200 pigs per pen) and 8.3 pigs per feeding space in the deep-litter system and 0.70 m2 per pig (45 pigs per pen) and 8.5 pigs per feeding space in the conventional system. In Study 2, the social and feeding behaviour of entire male growing pigs were compared. Eight hundred and eighty crossbred entire male pigs were used. There were 200 pigs per pen (1 m2 per pig; 8.3 pigs per feeding space) in the deep-litter system and 20 pigs per pen (0.49 m2 per pig; 10 pigs per feeding space) in the conventional system. When the average pig live weight was 60 kg, five non-focal pigs were removed from each pen resulting in 0.65 m2 per pig (7.5 pigs per feeding space). In both studies, ad libitum feed was provided in double-spaced, wet–dry feeders. In each study there were four replicates, with 10 focal animals per treatment per replicate randomly selected for behaviour observations. All observations were conducted during day light. In Study 1, behaviour was observed when pigs were 21–22 weeks of age and in Study 2 social behaviour observations were conducted from 19 to 22 weeks of age, while feeding behaviour was observed from 20 to 22 weeks of age. Pigs housed in the deep-litter system spent more (P Pigs in the deep-litter treatment spent less time (P

In order to valorize tainted meat from entire male pigs, two options exist in the production of different meat products: either to dilute tainted meat or to mask off-odors in the final product. Processing steps may also reduce the concentrations of boar taint compounds. This study investigated the impact of different processing methods on the concentrations of boar taint compounds skatole and androstenone in meat products. Three different types of German sausages, such as raw fermented (salami), boiled (wiener), and cooked meat sausages (liver sausage), were produced from boar meat and fat with either “high” or “low” taint level. Heating during processing, especially the production of wiener and liver sausage, reduced androstenone concentrations between 44 and 87%. In salami, androstenone concentrations were not reduced during production process. In contrast, skatole reductions of up to 26% were observed for salami and up to 44% for wiener, whereas liver sausage was not affected. Practical applications The risk of offensive boar taint is one of the main disadvantages of pork production with entire males. If the detection of tainted carcasses at the slaughter line can be improved, a valid strategy to valorize such carcasses is crucial. The study revealed that open heating during processing has the potential to reduce androstenone, whereas smoking of the products seems to reduce skatole concentrations in the final product.

Introductions Working donkeys are at risk of developing multiple, acute and chronic health problems. The ability to recognise and assess pain in donkeys associated with these health problems is important for people responsible for their care and treatment, including owners and veterinary or animal health workers. Aims and objectives The aims of this study were firstly to quantify the prevalence of a range of clinical abnormalities within a sample of working donkeys; and secondly to find out whether these abnormalities were associated with potential behavioural indicators of pain. Materials and methods One hundred and thirty-three entire male adult working donkeys were observed for ten minutes before and after a one-hour rest period. Using an ethogram developed and refined in associated studies, posture and event behaviours were recorded by a single observer. The health of each donkey was then assessed by a veterinarian for specific clinical abnormalities. Results Working donkeys have a high prevalence of clinical abnormalities and a number of behaviours are associated with these. Significant associations were found between observed behaviours and systemic, ocular and limb-related clinical abnormalities. Cumulative clinical scores for limb-related problems were associated with a higher frequency of leg trembling, knuckling of the forelimb, leg-lifting and weight-shifting behaviours (all R≥0.4; P

Immunological castration of male pigs is an attractive alternative to surgical castration and nowadays is increasingly used in many countries to reduce boar taint and improve pork quality. Moreover, immunocastrated pigs showed reduced sexual and aggressive behaviour compared to entire male pigs, thus improving animal welfare. Carcass and meat quality parameters generally do not differ between immunocastrated and surgically castrated male pigs. (C) 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license.

Foram utilizados 36 cordeiros machos inteiros, 24 da raça Santa Inês (SI) e 12 da raça Bergamácia (BE), distribuídos aleatoriamente nos grupos de peso ao abate de 15, 25, 35 e 45kg. O objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar a composição centesimal, composição em ácidos graxos por cromatografia gasosa e colesterol por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência no músculo longissimus dorsi (LD). Os parâmetros estudados foram submetidos à análise de regressão. O teor de umidade diminuiu, enquanto que a fração de lipídeos aumentou linearmente com o aumento do peso de abate, e o conteúdo de cinza permaneceu constante. A raça BE apresentou maior umidade e menor teor de lipídeos no músculo LD do que a SI. O conteúdo de colesterol foi similar em ambas as raças, mas diminuiu linearmente com o aumento do peso de abate. Foram identificados 12 ácidos graxos e os resultados indicaram que o C16:0 aumentou linearmente com o aumento do peso. O C18:0 diminuiu linearmente nos cordeiros SI e ajustou-se através de equação quadrática nos BE, com ponto máximo no peso do animal de 35kg. A porcentagem total de ácidos graxos saturados foi semelhante para todos os pesos ao abate e raças, com média de 43,6±2,5%. O C18:1ômega9 e o total de ácidos graxos monoinsaturados foram maiores na raça SI e em ambas as raças aumentaram linearmente com o aumento do peso. O total de ácidos graxos poliinsaturados das duas raças teve sua quantidade decrescida com o aumento do peso ao abate, sendo que os dados da raça SI ajustaram-se através de equação exponencial e da raça BE, por equação linear. In the experiment, thirty-six entire male lambs were used, 24 of Santa Inês breed (SI) and 12 of Bergamácia breed (BE). At random six SI and three BE, which weighed 15kg at the beginning of the experiment, were slaughtered and the rest when they reached the slaughtering weights of 25, 35 and 45kgs. The objective of the study was to evaluate the basic chemical composition, the fatty acids by gas chromatography and cholesterol by high performance liquid chromatography in the longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle. The results were submitted to a regression analysis. The moisture decreased while lipid fraction increased linearly when slaughter weight was increased and ash contents remained constant. The BE breed showed higher moisture and lower lipid contents than the SI breed. The content of cholesterol was similar in both breeds, but it decreased linearly when the slaughter weight increased. Twelve fatty acids were identified and the results indicated that the C16:0 concentration increased linearly with the animals' weight. The C18:0 decreased linearly in the SI breed and it was adjusted through a quadratic equation in the BE breed, with the maximum limit at 35kg. The total saturated fatty acids had similar results among the examined variables (slaughter weight and breeds), with a 43.6±2.5% average. The C18:1omega9 and total monounsaturated fatty acids were higher in the SI breed and in both breeds these quantities increased linearly with the increase in animal weight. The quantity of total polyunsaturated fatty acids in both breeds decreased with an increase in animal weight, with SI data were adjusted by an exponential equation and the BE breed by a linear equation.

MOST male horses in the UK are castrated or 9gelded9 before maturity to reduce or prevent the difficulties associated with keeping and riding entire male horses. The majority of castrations are performed in young horses (colts) but, from time to time, mature animals (stallions) also need to be castrated due to poor breeding performance or demand, change of career, or because of testicular or inguinal pathology. The choice of castration technique is governed by the age, temperament and size of the horse, the presence of concurrent abnormalities, the preferences of the clinician or owner and by the facilities available. This article discusses these factors and describes the procedures involved in both open and closed castration.

The effect of chicory inulin in diets for entire male pigs on skatole levels in colon, rectum and in adipose tissue, and on the composition of microbiota in colon and rectum was evaluated. Entire male pigs of the crossbreed [(Landrace × Yorkshire) × Landrace)] (n = 46; final BW = 101 kg) were fed with a control diet or diets containing either 3, 6 or 9% chicory inulin (containing 70% inulin) during the last four weeks before slaughter. Digesta samples for skatole analyses and for microbiological examinations were taken from colon descendens and rectum. Backfat samples were taken for skatole analyses. The skatole levels in adipose tissue were in general low (0.03 μg/g fat). There was a reduction in skatole with increasing dieatary levels of inulin (linear, P = 0.006). Skatole levels in the digesta samples were also reduced (linear, P P = 0.04) and rectum (linear, P = 0.02), and a tendency towards reduced levels of Enterococcus spp in colon descendens (linear, P = 0.09) and rectum (linear, P = 0.08). In conclusion, addition of chicory inulin in the finishing diet is an effective method to reduce skatole levels in digesta and adipose tissue of the entire male pigs, but the inclusion should be at least 6%, corresponding to 4.2% pure inulin.

A four-year-old, entire male whippet was presented with a three-day history of lethargy, inappetence, occasional retching, a soft cough and intermittent episodes of haemoptysis. Clinical and laboratory findings, and thoracic radiographic and ultrasonographic studies suggested a diagnosis of lung lobe torsion. A concurrent lung lobe torsion of the right cranial and right middle lung lobes was confirmed at exploratory thoracotomy. Management included resection of both the affected lung lobes. No obvious underlying aetiology for the condition was apparent. The dog made a full recovery from the procedure and at the time of writing (11 months postoperatively) was reported to be well, exercising normally and showing no breathing abnormalities.

Submitted by Vitor Silverio Rodrigues (vitorsrodrigues@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2014-05-27T11:19:52Z No. of bitstreams: 0Bitstream added on 2014-05-27T14:39:39Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 2-s2.0-0347900725.pdf: 36642 bytes, checksum: 3daf87ea1b603c39025d8c6790766ae9 (MD5) Made available in DSpace on 2014-05-27T11:19:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2000-01-01 The research was carried out to determine body composition and calcium and phosphorus requirements of Santa Ines lambs. Eighteen entire male lambs with average initial live weight of 15 kg were used. The animals were allotted to three groups: six animals were slaughtered at the beginning of the experiment, to access the amount of calcium and phosphorus present in the body, as reference animals for the comparative slaughter technique. Six animals were ad libitum fed and six were restrict fed (maintenance level plus 20%). The animals ad libitum and restrict fed started the experimental period by pairs and they were both slaughtered when the first reached 25 kg body weight. The body composition was estimated through the prediction equations obtained by regression of the logarithm of the amount of calcium and phosphorus in the empty body on the logarithm of the empty body weight. Net requirements for calcium and phosphorus for maintenance and the absorption coefficient were obtained through the correlation between the amount of each mineral consumed and retained in the animal body. The net requirements maintenance for live weight gain were obtained by means of derivation of the prediction of body composition equations. The net requirements maintainance of calcium and phosphorus for animals from 15 to 25 kg body weight were: 305 mg Ca/day and 325 mg P/day and net requirements for kg of the body weight gain for animals with 15 and 25 kg LW were 11.41 and 10.33 g Ca and 5.72 and 4.94 g P, respectively. The absorption coefficients were estimated to be .44 and 0.55 for Ca and P, respectively. Aluno do Curso Pos-Graduacao em Z., CEP 37200-000 - Lavras, MG Univ. Fed. de Lavras, CEP 37200-000 - Lavras - MG Univ. Estadual Paulista Camp. J., CEP 14870-000 - Jaboticabal, SP UNESP, Jaboticabal

An international study has been conducted in order to determine the respective contributions of androstenone and skatole to boar taint and their possible variations according to production systems and consumer populations. The presentation of the study and the main results concerning skatole and androstenone levels and data from sensory evaluation or consumer surveys are reported in companion papers. The present paper summarises the main conclusions of the study and gives tentative recommendations. A simulation study was conducted, based on the skatole and androstenone levels currently observed in European populations of entire male pigs and on the results of the consumer surveys. The first part of the simulation study demonstrated that, overall, 6.5% (odour) and 3.0% (flavour) more consumers were dissatisfied with entire male than with gilt pork. The differences were, however, very variable according to countries. Consumer dissatisfaction for the odour of entire male pork was mostly associated with high skatole levels, while androstenone had little influence on it. On the other hand, androstenone and skatole had similar contributions to the level of dissatisfaction for flavour. From the present study it is not possible to determine clear cut-off levels for androstenone/skatole. The regression equations presented in [Matthews, K. R., Homer, D. B., Punter, P., Béague, M. P., Gispert, M., Siret, F., Leask, H., Fonti i Furnols, M., & Bonneau, M. (2000). An international study on the importance of androstenone, skatole for boar taint: III. Consumer survey in seven European countries. Meat Science, 54, 271–283] provide a basis for decision making. However, due to methodological limitations, the results may underestimate consumer reaction to entire male pork. The second part of the simulation study demonstrated that sorting carcasses on the basis of androstenone/skatole would reduce, but not eliminate, differences in consumer dissatisfaction between entire male and gilt pork. For odour, taking androstenone into account did not improve the efficiency obtained from sorting using skatole only. For flavour, sorting using both compounds was more efficient than sorting using skatole only. Sorting out 15% of the entire males, on the basis of skatole only, would result in a difference in the proportion of dissatisfied consumers of 4.2% (odour) or 2.0% (flavour) between entire male and gilt pork. The results of the last part of the simulation study demonstrated that decreasing skatole in entire male pig populations, to levels as low as 0.10 ppm, would still result in a difference in the proportion of dissatisfied consumers of 3.2% (odour) or 1.6% (flavour). To reduce this difference further, the levels of both compounds would have to be reduced still further. The lowest difference that can be achieved is 2.3% (odour) or 0.4% (flavour). The conclusions of the present study may differ according to whether immediate commercial applications or long-term goals are considered. On the basis of the skatole and androstenone levels currently observed in entire male pig populations, sorting out procedures based on skatole is the easiest way to rapidly achieve a significant decrease in consumer dissatisfaction with entire male pork. In most countries, however, this will not be sufficient to obtain the same level of acceptability as with gilts. In the long term, a sharp reduction in both skatole and androstenone would have to be achieved in entire male pig populations to obtain low differences in acceptability between entire male and gilt pork.

To evaluate the contribution of fatness level towards pork eating quality, carcass and meat eating quality data were analysed from 721 pigs of three genotypes (with 0, 0.25 and 0.50 Duroc inclusion level). Animals (entire male and female) were reared from 30 to 90 kg liveweight on one of seven feeding regimens which involved combinations of diet formulation and feeding level, so as to produce carcasses of widely differing fatness levels. This experimental design produced coefficients of variation for classification P2 backfat thickness of 21.11 (mean 11.59 mm, SE 0.093) and intramuscular fat (IMF) of 63.60 (mean 13.4 g kg−1, SE 0.33). The treatments also produced considerable variation for eating quality as assessed by trained sensory panel (1–8 scale) and objectively (shear force) as shown by the following coefficients of variation: shear force 22.01% (mean 334 N, SE 2.77), juiciness 16.12% (mean 4.95, SE 0.297), tenderness 19.65% (mean 5.06, SE 0.370), pork flavour 13.22% (mean 4.56, SE 0.225), abnormal flavour 34.46% (mean 2.02, SE 0.259) and overall acceptability 18.42% (mean 4.78, SE 0.328). Correlation coefficients between carcass fatness measurements and eating quality characteristics were calculated. Although shear force was significantly correlated with both classification P2(r = −0.213) and IMF (r = − 0.189), taste panel tenderness was not significantly correlated to fatness level. Of the taste panel parameters evaluated, only juiciness showed a significant correlation (P

Boar taint or sexual odor is a sensorial defect (a disagreeable smell) that occurs in some meat from entire male pigs. The main compounds responsible are androstenone and skatole stored in the fat of the animal. The main technique for reducing the androstenone level in the meat is by castration, either surgically or by immunocastration. Recent studies in the field of immunocastration appear to provide a solution to the androstenone problem by reducing the levels of this substance while taking advantage of the yield and carcass quality of entire male pigs. The quantity of skatole is mainly affected by the diet and handling of the pigs. The consumer decides whether to accept or reject the meat from male pigs according to the presence or absence of boar taint. However, variations in the consumer response depending on country, preparation and type of product consumed, as well as the individual's sensitivity to sexual odor, can be observed by looking at different works. According to some of these studies, UK, Irish, Canadian and US consumers will more readily accept meat from entire male pigs than consumers from France, Sweden, the Netherlands and Spain.

Intact (85) and castrated (86) male pigs were slaughtered at 96.3 kg and at an average slaughter age of 150.1 days producing 79.1 kg carcasses. Either a corn or wheat-based, nutritionally equivalent ration was fed ad libitum. Nine percent less feed was required to market entire (intact) males when compared with castrates. Entire males had at least 1.9% more lean content and perhaps as much as 10% more carcass value. Little evidence was found to suggest that entire males had reduced meat quality. Preslaughter handling was an important aspect, since detrimental effects from inadequate preslaughter handling techniques appeared to be greater than those associated with gender. Therefore, considering production aspects only, entire male pigs should be able to be successfully marketed in Canada. However, detection and control of “sex-taint” and consumer acceptance of fresh pork from entire male pigs must be addressed.

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is the most common prostatic abnormality of entire male dogs. It has been estimated to occur (either grossly or microscopically) in over 80% of entire males over the age of five years. There are no known breed predispositions. The condition is characterised by an increase in prostatic epithelial cell numbers (hyperplasia) and also epithelial cell size (hypertrophy) (Johnston et al. 2000). Although the exact cause of BPH has not been determined, it is known that the age of the dog and hormonal influences play a major role; especially testosterone, dihydrotestosterone and circulating oestrogen levels.

The effects of various environmental factors on sexual maturation of entire males were studied and the relationships between sexual maturation, weight of genital organs, production traits and backfat androstenone and skatole levels were investigated. The material comprised 550 crossbred entire male and 550 female pigs. All were fed a restricted dry or wet (whey or water) diet containing 0.85, 0.95 or 1.05% lysine. Entire males and females were raised in either single-sex or mixed groups. Feed was withheld in half of the pens for approximately 26 h before slaughter. The pigs were slaughtered at a live weight of 107 kg. Most of the entire males were classified as mature or well developed. Environmental factors did not affect sperm maturation. Epididymal weights for males raised together with females were heavier than for those raised in single-sex groups. Weights of genital organs were negatively (but weakly) correlated to the proportion of lean meat in the carcass. Withholding feed before slaughter resulte...

The objective was to determine the effect of feeding diets differing in fibre content and source on backfat skatole content and boar taint score of entire male pigs. Sixty entire male pigs (Pietrain×Seghers hybrid cross) were assigned to four dietary treatments and fed ad libitum, in two phases (grower and fattening), one of the following diets: control, one with 15% sugar beet pulp, one with 30% wheat bran and one with 15% soybean hulls. The diets were isocaloric and isonitrogeneous, but differed in crude fibre content and fibre source. Mean crude fibre contents were 5.2, 7.7, 6.2 and 9.9%, respectively. Animal performance, carcass quality, backfat skatole and indole contents and boar taint scores were not influenced by diet. However, the wheat bran diet group gave a numerically (P=0.219) higher backfat skatole content than the sugar beet pulp diet group (126±182 vs 37±54 ng/g fat; mean±S.D.). Under the experimental conditions, there was no higher risk for skatole formation or boar taint occurrence by feeding fibre-rich diets to entire male pigs, compared with a conventional diet.

In order to evaluate the effect of exercise training and spontaneous physical activity on growth performance, carcass composition, and locomotory ability 48 female and 48 entire male pigs were subjected to one of three treatments: individual housing in pens of 2-5 m2(confined; C), individual housing and treadmill training for 15 minlday at a speed of 4 km/h, 5 days/week for a period of 70 days (trained; T) and group-housing equal to 0·9 m2per animal (free; F). Pigs in treatment C and T did not differ with regard to daily gain, food intake, kg food per kg gain and carcass lean content. Training did, however, induce significant cardiac hypertrophy (by a proportion of 0·06). In treatment F (i.e. large pens), daily gain was 135 g lower than in treatment C. Dissection of the carcasses showed that treatment F increased the weight of m. psoas major (by 30 g) and the total carcass bone mass (by 130 g) when compared with treatment C. Proportions of carcass lean and intramuscular fat were unaffected by treatment F. Likewise, leg weakness and osteochondrosis did not differ between treatments, whereas the locomotory ability was positively affected by rearing in large pens (treatment F) but not by treadmill training (treatment T). Thus, physical activity in large pens induced various adaptations throughout the body.

The influence of regular exercise training and physical activity on distribution of muscle fibre types, fibre cross-sectional areas and the number of adjacent capillaries per fibre type and per fibre (capillarization) was studied in five muscles from 48 female and 48 entire male pigs. In the growth interval from 30 to 100 kg, the pigs were subjected to one of three treatments: individual housing in pens of 2·5 m2(treatment C), individual housing and treadmill training for 15 minlday at a speed of 4 kmlh, 5 days/week for a period of 70 days (treatment T), and housing in large pens (36 m2, 40 pigs per pen) allowing for spontaneous physical activity (treatment F). In m. longissimus dorsi, treatment F increased the ratio of fast-twitch oxidative (FTa-) to fast twitch glycolytic (FTb-) fibres, elevated the mean fibre cross-sectional area and the number of capillaries per fibre. In m. biceps femoris (BF) from female pigs, the only adaptation found was a marked training-induced (treatment T) increase in the cross-sectional area of the slow-twitch (ST-) fibres. In m. semitendinosus and BF from male pigs, treatments T and F increased the ratio of FTa- to FTb-fibres. Both training and spontaneous activity increased the proportion of ST-fibres in m. trapezius thoracis (0·48 in treatment C, 0·53 in T and 0·52 in F). Conversely in m. psoas major, treatment F increased the proportion of FTa-fibres (0·15 in C and 0·19 in F) at the expense of ST- and intermediate FTc-fibres. Spontaneous activity induced ST-fibre hypertrophy in the five muscles. For several muscles, the mean fibre cross-sectional area was significantly higher in female than in male pigs.

Due to animal welfare concerns the production of entire male pigs is one viable alternative to surgical castration. Elevated levels of boar taint may, however, impair consumer acceptance. Due to the lack of technical methods, control of boar taint is currently done using sensory quality control. While the need for control measures with respect to boar taint has been clearly stated in EU legislation, no specific requirements for selecting assessors have yet been documented. This study proposes tests for the psychophysical evaluation of olfactory acuity to key volatiles contributing to boar taint. Odor detection thresholds for androstenone and skatole are assessed as well as the subject’s ability to identify odorants at various levels through easy-to-use paper smell strips. Subsequently, fat samples are rated by the assessors, and the accuracy of boar taint evaluation is studied. Considerable variation of olfactory performance is observed demonstrating the need for objective criteria to select assessors.

The aim of this study was to determine possible differences in felinine excretion between domesticated cat breeds. For this purpose, urine was collected from a total of 83 privately owned entire male cats from eight different breeds in the Netherlands during the period of November 2010 till November 2011. In the collected samples, free felinine and creatinine concentrations were measured. Free felinine concentrations were expressed relative to the urinary creatinine concentration to compensate for possible variations in renal output. The mean (±SD) felinine:creatinine (Fel:Cr) ratio as measured over all cats was 0.702 (±0.265). Both the Abyssinian and Sphynx breeds showed the highest Fel:Cr ratio (0.878 ± 0.162 and 0.878 ± 0.341 respectively) which significantly differed from the ratios of the British Shorthairs (0.584 ± 0.220), Birmans (0.614 ± 0.266), Norwegian Forest cats (0.566 ± 0.296) and Siberian cats (0.627 ± 0.124). The Fel:Cr ratios of the Persians (0.792 ± 0.284) and Ragdolls (0.673 ± 0.256) showed no statistical difference with either of the other breeds. A significant proportion of the observed variation between the different feline breeds could be explained by hair growth, as both hair growth and felinine production compete for available cysteine. Shorthaired and hairless cat breeds generally showed a higher Fel:Cr ratio compared to longhaired cat breeds, with the exception of Persian cats. Further research is warranted to more closely study the effect of hair growth on felinine production.

It is very clear that the biblical narrative of Ishmael’s life in Genesis is incomplete, fragmentary, and episodic. There are only two sections dedicated to his life. One is about his birth (Chapter 16). The second is about Isaac’s birth by Sarah and the subsequent expulsion of Ishmael and his mother Hagar to the wilderness (Chapter 21). In between there is only one mention of Ishmael, relating to God’s promises to Abraham and his family and to the Covenant, which was marked by the circumcision of Abraham’s entire male household, including Ishmael (Chapter 17). The next time we hear about him is during Abraham’s funeral, when Ishmael and Isaac join together to mourn their father and bury him; and this is just a brief comment (Chapter 25).

The global pork industry produces more than 100 million tons of pork annually and is the most consumed meat animal protein in the world. Pork is raised in North and South America, Asia, Australia, and Europe as a major component of the agriculture economy on those continents. Many factors such as sex, age, body weight, climate, breed, and culture influence pork quality and how it is perceived and consumed.

The study embracing 1528 crossbred entire male (EM), female (F) and castrated (C) pigs (26–105 kg live weight, LW) was aimed at studying the effects of different environmental factors such as feeding system, diet composition, raising in single-sex and mixed groups, and feeding and grouping routines prior to slaughter on performance and backfat skatole levels. Furthermore, the profitability of the different sexes was calculated. The pigs were fed restrictedly a dry or a wet (whey or water) diet containing either 0.85, 0.95 or 1.05% lysine. The evening before slaughter the pigs were either fed or not. During transport and lairage before slaughter, one half of the pigs were mixed with unfamiliar pigs of all sexes, while the other half were handled pen-wise. In comparison with C, EM pigs had superior daily weight gain (DWG, + 23 g/d) and feed efficiency (−0.15 kg feed/kg weight gain). In the LW range from 60 kg to slaugther EM raised in groups together with F had a tendency to exhibit a lower DWG, compared with raising in single-sex groups. Carcass lean meat percentage in EM exceeded that of C by 4.1 units when estimated by partial dissection. In the LW range from start to 60 kg, pigs fed the highest lysine level (1.05%) had a higher DWG than pigs fed lower lysine levels (0.85 and 0.95%). Lysine level had no effect on carcass lean meat percentage. Wet feeding with whey, but not with water, reduced backfat skatole levels, in comparison with dry feeding. Pigs fed the higher vis-a-vis the lower lysine level had higher skatole levels in trial 1, whereas in trial 2 there was no effect. Contact with F pigs in the pen tended to reduce fat skatole level in EM. Neither feeding routines nor mixing with unfamiliar pigs prior to slaughter affected skatole level in backfat, except for a reduction in nonfed pigs, mixed with unfamiliar pigs prior to slaughter. Gross margin per pig place and year did not distinguish EM from C when graded commercially, but was significantly superior for EM when payment was based on dissected carcass lean meat percentage.

Ninety-six entire male Large White XLandrace pigs were assigned at 13 kg to one of six dietary crude protein (P) treatments (230 g/kg (P1), 201 g/kg (P2), 178 g/kg (P3), 151 g/kg (P4), 125 g/kg (P5), 93 g/kg (P6)) and one of four temperatures (T) (no. = 4) (18°C, 22°C, 26°C, 30°C), and were given food ad libitum until slaughter weight of 30 kg. At all temperatures gut fill was a constant proportion of food intake (Fl) (1·56) but this ratio varied with different protein concentrations. Food intake increased with decreasing temperature and with decreasing protein content to a maximum rate on P4 (1·347 kg) whereafter FI declined. There was a linear decrease in average daily gain (ADG) with decreasing protein content while temperature had a significant curvilinear effect on ADG and food conversion ratio (FCR) with maximum ADG (0·680 kg/day) at 26°C. Body protein content decreased as the dietary protein concentration declined below P3 and there was a corresponding increase in lipid content. Temperature had no effect on body protein content but had a significant effect on lipid content. Similar trends occurred in the rate of protein (PR) and lipid (LR) retention with maximum PR (117·1 g/day) attained on PI, P2 and P3. Protein and temperature had a significant effect on total heat loss (THL). Maximum THL occurred in the protein treatment that resulted in pigs consuming maximum FI. The efficiency of protein utilization increased with increasing temperature but the response was dependent on the protein supply. It is concluded that on low protein diets pigs increase their Fl to maintain potential protein growth until a point is reached where the animal can no longer compensate and FI will decline. The extent of the compensation will depend on the amount of heat the animal can lose which in turn is dependent on the environmental temperature.

Intramuscular collagen and meat texture were measured in 23 female and 23 entire male pigs, subjected to one of three treatments: individual housing in pens of 2.5 m2 (confined; C), individual housing and regular treadmill training (trained; T) and group housing equal to 0.9 m2/animal (free; F). Treatment T tended (P = 0.13) to increase the activity of citrate synthase (CS) in M. biceps femoris (BF) from female pigs. Moreover, the heat stability of collagen and the mechanical resistance to 60 and 80% compression were increased (P 0.05) by physical activity, however. In BF from female pigs, CS activity, collagen content and resistance to compression were lower (P

There is only little information available concerning the chemical body composition of growing-finishing boars. For that reason, a total of 26 entire male pigs (boars) of two different Pietrain sire lines were fed with different levels of dietary essential amino acids (EAA) and the influence of this treatment on performance and chemical body composition was evaluated. In addition, an initial group of eight boars (n = 4 per sire line) was slaughtered at approximately 21 kg live weight (LW). The other 26 boars were fed three different diets containing 11.5, 13.2 and 14.9 g lysine/kg during the grower period and 9.0, 10.4, 11.7 g lysine/kg during the finisher period, respectively. Other EAA were added in relation to lysine (Lys: Met + Cys: Thr: Trp: Val = 1: 0.60: 0.65: 0.18: 0.75). At a LW of approximately 122 kg these 26 boars (six groups with three to seven animals each) were also slaughtered. The effects of EAA level and sire line on fattening and slaughter performance was recorded, and body and weight gain composition were analysed. There were no significant effects of EAA level on performance or on chemical body composition. Boars sired with Pietrain line 1 demonstrated increased lean meat content and protein body content (p < 0.05) as compared to Pietrain line 2-sired boars.

Six entire male rabbits, between four and eight years old, were presented with a fluctuant scrotal and/or inguinal swelling resulting from inguinal herniation of the urinary bladder. Concurrent problems included urinary sediment (two rabbits), multiple uroliths (one rabbit) and testicular tumour (one rabbit). All rabbits underwent herniorrhaphy surgery. There was a successful outcome in four of the six cases.

Paternity protection and the acquisition of multiple mates select for different traits. The consensus from theoretical work is that mate-guarding intensifies with an increasing male bias in the adult sex ratio (ASR). A male bias can thus lead to male monogamy if guarding takes up the entire male time budget. Given that either female- or male-biased ASRs are possible, why is promiscuity clearly much more common than male monogamy? We address this question with two models, differing in whether males can assess temporal cues of female fertility. Our results confirm the importance of the ASR: guarding durations increase with decreasing female availability and increasing number of male competitors. However, several factors prevent the mating system from switching to male monogamy as soon as the ASR becomes male biased. Inefficient guarding, incomplete last male sperm precedence, any mechanism that allows sperm to fertilize eggs after the male's departure, and (in some cases) the unfeasibility of precopulatory guarding all help explain cases where promiscuity exists on its own or alongside temporally limited mate-guarding. Shortening the window of fertilization shifts guarding time budgets from the postcopulatory to the precopulatory stage.

The objective of this study was to build up a data set including productive performance and production factors data of growing-finishing (GF) pigs in Spain in order to perform a representative and reliable description of the traits of Spanish growing-finishing pig industry. Data from 764 batches from 452 farms belonging to nine companies (1,157,212 pigs) were collected between 2008 and 2010 through a survey including five parts: general, facilities, feeding, health status and performance. Most studied farms had only GF pigs on their facilities (94.7%), produced �gindustrial�h pigs (86.7%), had entire male and female (59.5%) and Pietrain-sired pigs (70.0%), housed between 13-20 pigs per pen (87.2%), had . 50% of slatted floor (70%), single-space dry feeder (54.0%), nipple drinker (88.7%) and automatic ventilation systems (71.2%). A 75.0% of the farms used three feeding phases using mainly pelleted diets (91.0%), 61.3% performed three or more antibiotic treatments and 36.5% obtained water from the public supply. Continuous variables studied had the following average values: number of pigs placed per batch, 1,515 pigs; initial and final body weight, 19.0 and 108 kg; length of GF period, 136 days; culling rate, 1.4%; barn occupation, 99.7%; feed intake per pig and fattening cycle, 244 kg; daily gain, 0.657 kg; feed conversion ratio, 2.77 kg kg.1 and mortality rate, 4.3%. Data reflecting the practical situation of the Spanish growing and finishing pig production and it may contribute to develop new strategies in order to improve the productive and economic efficiency of GF pig units.

Chemical and sensory tests are widely used to detect boar taint in meat from entire male pigs. Chemical tests typically assess tissue levels of the compounds associated with taint, including 16-androstenes, like 5α-androstenone, and skatole. Sensory tests classify boar carcasses into either tainted or untainted categories according to test criteria assessed by human evaluators. The threshold levels of taint compounds are typically determined according to the results of chemical tests. This experiment was designed to compare chemical analyses and sensory tests by a trained panel for the determination of taint and to study their accuracies. Fat samples were taken in a slaughterhouse from 220 intact male pigs killed at 100.4 ± 0.4 kg body weight. Fat samples, frozen after collection at slaughter, were subsequently analyzed for levels of androstenone and skatole using a colorimetric method. Samples also were evaluated by a trained sensory panel for the presence of boar taint. Forty-nine percent of males had fat androstenone levels above 1.0 ppm, the cutoff level used to discriminate tainted from untainted pork. Only 2% of pigs had fat skatole levels above 0.25 ppm of cutoff level. Fifteen percent of boars were judged as tainted by the sensory panel. Based on the cutoff levels of 1.0 ppm of fat androstenone and 0.25 ppm of fat skatole, the sensitivities and specificities of the chemical analysis were, respectively, 100% and 54.1% for androstenone, and 8.0% and 99.0% for skatole. The sensitivity and specificity of pooled data (combined androstenone and skatole) were 84.8% and 57.2%, respectively; positive and negative predictive values were 25.9% and 95.5%, respectively. These results suggest that fat androstenone is more reliable than skatole for identifying taint. Furthermore, chemical analysis of tissue levels of androstenone and skatole does not identify all tainted carcasses, suggesting that other compounds may also contribute to taint.

The feeding behaviour of individually housed growing pigs differs significantly from that of group housed animals, with individual penning resulting in shorter, more frequent visits to the feeding trough (De Haer and Merks, 1992. Anim. Prod., 54: 95–104). Substituting group housing by a single housing environments was therefore expected to increase substantially the number of visits to the feeding trough. Three groups of ten cross-bred entire male pigs (initial live-weight 29.3 ± 0.6 kg; mean ± SE) were housed for 14 days (Period 1) with ad libitum access to one computerized single-space feeder per group. Four pigs were chosen from each group; two pigs showing a high feeding frequency (H pigs: 18.9 ± 2.0 visits day−1; mean ± SE; n = 6) and two pigs showing a low feeding frequency (L pigs: 9.5 ± 0.8 visits day−1; mean ± s.e.; n = 6). The L pigs had a higher feed intake per visit (137 vs 82 g per visit; SED = 8; P < 0.001), and a lower daily feed intake (1246 vs 1477 g day−1; SED = 84; P < 0.05) than H pigs. On Day 15, H and L pigs were moved to individual pens identical to the group pens for a period of 14 days (Period 2). This individual housing resulted in only a small increase in the frequency of feeder visits (2.8 ± 0.8 visits day−1, irrespective of the feeding frequency displayed by the pigs during Period 1. The relatively small increase in number of daily feeder visits resulted in a significant increase (P < 0.05) in daily feed intake, leading to no differences between pigs in daily feed intake once individually penned. Pigs showing a low number of daily feeder visits when group housed may have been constrained in terms of daily feed intake as a result of the displayed feeding pattern. In addition, the feeding pattern of growing pigs may be less flexible than expected, and pigs, which have been constrained in their food intake, will make only small modifications to their feeding pattern, sufficient to compensate for the previous constraint. It is likely that growing pigs will adhere to a feeding pattern that has provided them with sufficient food in the past, even when a change in the environment allows for more extreme modifications to occur.

Most studies of the feeding behaviour of group housed growing pigs have used computerized single-space feeders, which result in a pig:trough ratio which differs from that found on commercial pig farms, where multi-space feeding troughs are used. The present experiment compared the feeding patterns of group housed, growing pigs given access to either a computerized single-space feeder or a four-space feeding trough. Eighty cross-bred entire male pigs (initial live-weight 32.3 ± 0.62 kg; mean ± s.e.) were allocated to groups of ten, and each group given access to one of the two feeder types. The feeding behaviour was measured automatically fro the single-space feeders, and determined for the four-space trough treatment from video tapes, where feeder visits were counted and timed, combined with daily weights of the food eaten per group. Pigs given access to a four-space trough visited the feeder much more frequently (84.5 vs. 14.3 visits day−1; s.e.d. = 5.3; P < 0.001), and for shorter durations (0.67 vs. 4.67 min per visit; s.e.d. = 0.36; P < 0.001), eating only a little per visit (24 vs. 149 g per visit; s.e.d. = 14; P < 0.001) compared with pigs kept in the groups given access to a computerized single-space feeder. High levels of allelomimetic feeding were shown by pigs using the four-space trough, with 61% of all visits initiated whilst one or more pigs were already feeding. Also, a higher proportion of visits were made adjacent to a feeding pig than would have been expected by change (0.59 vs. 0.50; P < 0.001). No significant differences were found between treatment in the rate of feeding or daily feeder occupation. The differences in feeding pattern did not result in differences in production variables in terms of daily feed intake, daily live-weight gain, and feed conversion ratio. A bout analysis was applied to the data using frequency distributions of length of intervals between visits. For pigs using the four-space trough visits could justifiably be collapsed into feeding bouts, whereas this was not the case for visits displayed by pigs using the single-space feeder. Pigs using the four-space trough showed a high frequency (0.64) of changes between spaces within each feeding bout. This may represent exploratory or sampling behaviour, which may aid the pig in obtaining a nutrient-sufficient diet should many different food items be available. Comparing feeding bouts from the four-space feeders to visits from the single-space feeders revealed no differences between the two types of feeders, indicating that single-space feeders constrain the feeding pattern mainly in terms of preventing changes between trough-spaces within bursts of feeding.

Boars (entire male pigs) consume less feed than barrows (castrated male pigs) under practical ad libitum feeding conditions, but the knowledge about possible reasons is only limited. Since the lysine and energy contents of the diet are known to be important determinants of voluntary feed intake, it was of interest if sex specific responses to selected dietary lysine-toenergy ratios could explain the differences in feed intake between boars and barrows.

Rearing entire pigs may lead to meat quality and welfare problems in relation to pubertal development. A better knowledge of the sources of variation of pubertal development, behaviour and boar taint is needed before generalizing entire male pigs. From 84 days of age, entire male pigs were reared in groups of 10 either in a conventional (C, 1 m²/animal, slatted floor) or an enriched (E, 2.5 m²/animal, straw bedding, outdoor run) housing during spring or autumn and fed ad libitum (n=10/housing/season). Mounting behaviour was observed for 3 h during the third (M3), fourth (M4) and fifth (M5) months of age. The total number of skin lesions was counted on both sides of the pigs 1 day before the behavioural recordings. The time spent in the outdoor run was also recorded during 3 days per month. The animals were slaughtered at 161±1 days of age (122±9 kg live weight). Blood samples were collected at 89 (M3), 119 (M4) and 152 (M5) days of age and at slaughter for the testosterone and oestradiol measurements. The testes were collected at slaughter, freed from the surrounding tissues and weighed. The fat samples were collected for the androstenone and skatole concentration measurement. Plasma testosterone and oestradiol-17β (oestradiol), fat androstenone and skatole and weight of the testes did not differ between the housing systems. Plasma testosterone (8.3 v. 3.9 nmol/l, P

Productivity, behaviour and injury was compared in four housing treatments for pigs within one building: deep-straw, Straw-Flow ® , bare-concrete and slats. Three replicates of four uniform lots of entire male pigs (15 per treatment) were studied. The pigs were grown from 27 to 90 kg liveweight. They were offered food and water ad libitum. Due to significantly greater food intake, the pigs from the pooled treatments with straw grew significantly faster than pigs from the pooled treatments without straw. There were no significant differences in food-to-gain ratio. Pigs with straw spent a large proportion of their time manipulating it. Pigs without straw were less active and spent more time manipulating the pen hardware and other pigs. Pigs with straw played more than those without straw. Pigs in the pooled treatments with straw had significantly lower injury scores. Adventitious bursitis of the hock was significantly reduced by keeping pigs on deep-straw and significantly increased by keeping pigs on slats. The welfare of pigs with straw appeared better than those without straw. There were few significant differences between the two straw treatments or between the two treatments without straw.

The efficacy of ractopamine (Rac) at 0, 5, 12.5, or 20 mg/kg of the diet for entire male and female pigs of a lean genotype was assessed in two experiments. In Experiment 1 (n ‐ 56) pigs were fed a diet containing 16.5% crude protein ad libitum for 40 days from an initial weight of c. 50 kg, whereas in Experiment 2 (n = 80) the same diet was fed at a restricted level (c. 87% ad libitum) according to liveweight from 50 kg to a final weight of 87 kg. For Experiment 1 (ad libitum) Rac had no effect on growth rate of either sex and no effect on carcass composition for males, but for females the carcass lean content increased and carcass fatness decreased. For Experiment 2 with pigs fed at a restricted level, Rac increased the rate and efficiency of growth, the killing‐out percentage, and the carcass lean percentage for both sexes, but levels of fatness were not affected. Rac had no effect on Warner‐Bratzler shear force values for either experiment, but for Experiment 1, the longissimus muscles from f...

Twenty-four Thai native (TN), 25% Anglo-Nubian (AN), 50% (AN) entire male weaner kids (each eight) (15.7 ± 0.45 kg BW) were used to compare growth and feed utilisation of these three goat genotypes at four levels of intake (maintenance (M), 1.2 M, 1.4 M and ad libitum). TN kids had lower (P < 0.05) DM and OM digestibility coefficients than did 25 and 50% AN kids. Kids fed ad libitum had higher (P < 0.05) DM, OM, NDF and ADF digestibility coefficients than did kids fed 1.2 M and M intakes. There was no significant main effect of genotype on goat growth rates (g/d and g/kg0.75/d), although 50% AN goats fed ad libitum had higher (P < 0.05) growth rates (g/d) than did 25% AN and TN goats given the same level of intake. As expected, growth rates increased as feed intakes increased from maintenance (1.3 g/kg0.75/d) to ad libitum (10.0 g/kg0.75/d). Linear regression equations combined across genotypes were used to calculate maintenance and growth requirements for energy and protein for these goats. Maintenance energy requirement was 376 ± 18.5 kJ ME/kg0.75/d and the ME requirement for BW gain was 25.9 ± 2.4 kJ ME/g. Minimum N requirements for maintenance of BW was 4.4 ± 0.24 g DCP/kg0.75/d and requirements for BW gain was 0.204 ± 0.033 g DCP/kg gain. Results from the present experiment suggest that Thai native and AN x Thai native goats have similar protein and energy requirements for growth, and that these values are similar to those reported for other breeds of goats. It is also suggested that the comparatively poor growth of all goats at the highest intake was related to low voluntary feed intakes and probably associated with high environmental temperatures and humidity.

Eighteen (six Thai native (TN); six 25% F2 TN X Anglo-Nubian (AN) and six 50% F2 TN X AN) entire male weaner kids were used to study the effect of genotype and feed intake level (maintenance (M), 1.2 M and ad libitum (1.9 M)) on carcass composition. When compared at the same empty body weight (EBW), there was no difference between genotype or plane of nutrition on dressing percentage (55.0%), body components (head plus horns 9.45%, hide 10.3%, shank plus tail 3.7%, digestive tract 7.5%, organs (liver, lungs plus trachea, spleen, heart, diaphragm, kidneys) 4.8%), omental fat (2.3%), carcass dissectible muscle (61.6%) or carcass dissectible fat (12.9%). However, TN kids had lower (P < 0.05) carcass bone (%), higher muscle-to-bone ratios (MBR) and edible meat (muscle + fat)-to-bone ratios than did 50% AN kids. Care needs to be taken that MBR are not lost in crossbreeding programs with introduced European goats.

This paper reviews the meat quality characteristics of meat from entire male pigs. The advantages and disadvantages of meat from entire male pigs are discussed. The areas requiring further study are emphasized. Entire males, compared to other genders, have a slightly lower dressing percentage (2–2.5%) but higher lean content (5%). Entire male carcasses also have less fat, and the adipose tissue of entire males is softer due to higher levels of unsaturated fatty acids. Processing characteristics do not differ essentially between genders, with the exception of processing yields, which are slightly lower for entire males. Entire males have a slightly higher incidence of DFD meat and skin damage. Boar taint is mainly due to high levels of androstenone and skatole in the fat. The incidence, methods for measuring and control of boar taint are reviewed. Generally, the levels of boar taint in entire males at market weight are low. However, an objective screening test is required to identify tainted carcasses. Other than boar taint, sensory characteristics do not meaningfully differ between genders. Processing can reduce the intensity of boar taint, and methods for utilization of tainted meat are discussed. The use of entire males for meat production may increase the profitability of the pork industry.

For centuries, entire male pigs have been castrated to reduce the risk of boar taint. However, physical castration of pig is increasingly being questioned with regard to animal welfare considerations. Immunization against gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH) provides an alternative to physical castration. Using the currently available commercial product (Improvac®; Pfizer Animal Health), a two-dose regimen of a GnRH vaccine is administered. After the second vaccination, a substantial increase in feed consumption has been reported, which may be associated with increased body fatness and decreased feed efficiency when compared with unvaccinated entire male pigs. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of a feed restriction on these traits and on the behaviour of 120 group-housed entire males (five pigs/pen) vaccinated against GnRH. The first vaccination was performed at 62 days of age and the second (V2) at 130 days of age. Pigs were slaughtered in two batches 4 to 5 weeks after V2. They were either offered feed ad libitum over the 22 to 114 kg BW range (AL treatment) or ad libitum up to a maximum of 2.50 (R2.50 treatment) or 2.75 kg/day per pig (R2.75 treatment). Behavioural observations and skin lesion scoring were conducted 1 week before V2, and 1 and 3 weeks after V2. At slaughter, the volumetric lean meat content was measured using an X-ray computed tomography scanner. Between V2 and slaughter, the average feed intakes for the R2.75 and R2.50 treatments were 15% and 22% lower than the average AL feed intake (3.20 kg/day), respectively. Feed restriction was associated with a reduced average daily gain after V2 (846, 932 and 1061 g/day in the R2.50, R2.75 and AL groups, P < 0.01) but had no effect on the feed conversion ratio (3.00 kg feed/kg BW gain on average, P = 0.62). No difference was observed in the lean meat content (71.8%, 70.7% and 70.4% in the R2.50, R2.75 and AL groups, P = 0.14), despite a reduced backfat thickness measured in restrictively fed pigs (12.0, 13.0 and 13.6 mm in the R2.50, R2.75 and AL groups, P < 0.01). Higher skin lesion scores were observed 3 weeks after V2 in R2.50 and R2.75 pigs than in the AL ones (scores 33.4, 27.7 and 25.5, respectively, P = 0.04). These results, combined with an unimproved feed efficiency and no marked change in carcass characteristics, suggest that immunologically castrated pigs should not be restrictively fed during the late finishing period.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of various boar taint detection methods, measure the relationship between them and identify possible points of improvement for boar taint detection. The methods used to evaluate boar taint in the carcasses of 448 entire male pigs and 17 barrows were the hot iron method (n = 442), a standardised (n = 323) and home (n = 58) consumer meat-evaluation panel, an expert panel assessment of meat and fat (n = 464) and laboratory analysis of skatole, androstenone and indole in fat (n = 464). The axillary odour of a number of slaughtered entire male pigs was also investigated (n = 231). As correlation coefficients were generally weak, a positive result for one of these detection methods did not per se result in a positive result for all other methods. Results of one detection method could not be generalised. The choice to use one or more detection methods deserves consideration depending on the aim of the study. In this paper, we suggest some possible improvements for evaluating boar taint with a consumer panel based on our results and experience. The home consumer evaluation was correlated with the concentration of indole (r = 0.27) but not with skatole or androstenone. We therefore recommend that lab analyses include indole testing. The hot iron method seems to be an easy and fast detection method, which yields comparable or better correlation coefficients with the other detection methods than an expert panel evaluating fat samples. However, the reliability of the hot iron method depends on the training and reliability of one or two assessors. Efforts should be made to further optimise this method by evaluating the effect of testing conditions. The axillary odour score was moderately correlated with the other detection methods (up to 0.32). More research is needed to evaluate the possibilities of axillary odour as a boar taint detection method.

The objective of the study was to compare growth performance, carcass characteristics, meat quality and fatty acid composition of the adipose tissue of group-penned barrows, immunocastrated boars and entire males. Furthermore, the effect of housing of entire males on the aforementioned parameters was evaluated. At 55.2 days of age, 52 Swiss Large White pigs were blocked by litter and assigned by BW to four experimental groups: barrows (C), immunocastrated boars (IC), entire males (EMG) reared in group pens and entire males (EMP) reared in individual pens. In experiment 1, the effects of the method of castration were investigated (experimental groups C, IC and EMG). In experiment 2, the effects of housing on entire male pigs were evaluated (experimental groups EMG and EMP). All pigs had ad libitum access to standard diets from weaning to 107 kg BW. The two vaccinations (Improvac®) were applied to the IC pigs at an average BW of 22.6 and 73.0 kg. In experiment 1, average daily gain (ADG) did not (P > 0.05) differ among the experimental groups. However, EMG consumed less feed and had a better feed-conversion ratio than C (P < 0.001 for each). For IC, intermediate values were observed, which differed (P < 0.001) from EMG and C. Lean meat percentage decreased (P < 0.05) from EMG to IC, and from IC to C. The androstenone and skatole levels were higher (P < 0.05) in the adipose tissue of EMG than IC and C. Shear force values were higher (P < 0.01) in the longissimus muscle of C and EMG, compared to IC. The concentration of saturated fatty acid in the adipose tissue increased (P < 0.001) from EMG to IC, and from IC to C pigs, and that of polyunsaturated fatty acid decreased (P < 0.001). In experiment 2, ADG did not (P > 0.05) differ between EMP and EMG. However, EMP pigs consumed more feed than EMG pigs and had a poorer feed efficiency (P < 0.01 for each). In conclusion, EMG pigs had a better feed efficiency than IC pigs and their carcasses were leaner, but the risk of boar tainted pork was elevated. Group-housing negatively affected average daily feed intake but not ADG of entire males. At the moment, immunocastration offers a good approach to avoid castration and minimize the risk of boar taint.

Pietrain (P), Large White (LW) and Belgian Landrace stress negative (BN) boars were slaughtered at 50, 70, 90 or 110 kg live weight to investigate breed differences and the effect of slaughter weight on boar taint prevalence. Boar taint was quantified by four different methodologies: sensory evaluation of neckfat heated with a hot iron in the slaughterhouse, sensory evaluation of meat by consumer panels, sensory evaluation of fat and meat by expert panels and laboratory analysis of indole, skatole and androstenone in backfat. Skatole levels in backfat were significantly higher for LW and BN than for P boars. The androstenone levels and the hot iron method revealed a significant interaction between breed and slaughter weight. On the other hand, experts detected an effect of weight on the androstenone odour perception, which was significantly higher in fat from boars slaughtered at 90 kg compared with 50 kg, and significantly higher in meat from boars slaughtered at 110 kg compared with 50 kg. Consumers did not detect differences in the sensory characteristics among breeds or slaughter weight. These results indicate opportunities to minimise the risk of boar taint in entire male pigs by carefully selecting a combination of breed and slaughter weight. Along with the optimal slaughter weight, the effectiveness of reducing boar taint by lowering slaughter weight appeared to be breed dependent.

In the 25 EU countries more than 100 million male piglets are castrated each year. Castration is particularly problematic in organic pig production because it conflicts with the high welfare and other ethical standards associated with this system of animal production. The objective was to investigate possible welfare implications of producing organic entire male pigs. A total of 281 entire male pigs and 250 female pigs, raised in accordance with Danish organic standards in two commercial herds, were distributed into 15 male groups and 15 female groups. The pigs were observed at 40, 70 and 90 kg. Behaviour observations was made in two different periods, ‘roughage provision’ with observation of aggressive interactions lasting 30 min, and ‘post-roughage provision’ with observations of aggressive interactions, number of mountings and number of active animals in intervals of 15 min, lasting 90 min in total. Number of skin lesions and prevalence of lameness and general debility were assessed for each animal. The mean aggression levels were 4.3 interactions per animal per hour during ‘roughage provision’ and 1.9 during ‘post-roughage provision’, with no difference between genders in either period. Also no difference in severity of the aggressive behaviour between males and females was observed. Aggression decreased significantly with increasing pig weight during ‘post-roughage provision’ (P