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Illness narratives have become very popular. The stories of children, however, are rarely ever studied. This paper aims to provide insight into how children, parents and physicians make sense of progressive childhood cancer. It also explores how this meaning-giving process interacts with cultural dominant stories on cancer and dying. The presented data come from 16 open-ended face-to-face interviews with palliative paediatric patients, their parents and physicians. The interviews were carried out in eight paediatric oncology centres in Switzerland. Data analysis followed Arthur Frank's dialogical narrative analysis. Quest narratives were relatively rare compared to both chaos and restitution stories. All participants welcomed chaos stories as a liminal haven between quest and restitution. The possibility that the child could die was either ignored or briefly contemplated, but then immediately pushed away. Except for one patient, children never directly addressed the topic of death. The way in which death was presented raises important questions about how the social discourse on dying is framed in terms of choice, autonomy and individuality. This discourse not only determines the way in which children and adults relate to the minor's death, it also constitutes an obstacle to children's participation in decision-making.

To advance our restricted knowledge on mosquito biodiversity and distribution in Belgium, a national inventory started in 2007 (MODIRISK) based on a random selection of 936 collection points in three main environmental types: urban, rural and natural areas. Additionally, 64 sites were selected because of the risk of importing a vector or pathogen in these sites. Each site was sampled once between May and October 2007 and once in 2008 using Mosquito Magnet Liberty Plus traps. Diversity in pre-defined habitat types was calculated using three indices. The association between species and environmental types was assessed using a correspondence analysis. Twenty-three mosquito species belonging to traditionally recognized genera were found, including 21 indigenous and two exotic species. Highest species diversity (Simpson 0.765) and species richness (20 species) was observed in natural areas, although urban sites scored also well (Simpson 0.476, 16 species). Four clusters could be distinguished based on the correspondence analysis. The first one is related to human modified landscapes (such as urban, rural and industrial sites). A second is composed of species not associated with a specific habitat type, including the now widely distributedAnopheles plumbeus. A third group includes species commonly found in restored natural or bird migration areas, and a fourth cluster is composed of forest species. Outcomes of this study demonstrate the effectiveness of the designed sampling scheme and support the choice of the trap type. Obtained results of this first country-wide inventory of the Culicidae in Belgium may serve as a basis for risk assessment of emerging mosquito-borne diseases.

The L-isomer of the potent HIV-1-RT inhibitor TSAO-T has been stereospecifically synthesized and tested for its ‘ in vitro’ antiretroviral activity against HIV-1. Unlike the D-isomer, the L-isomer did not show appreciable inhibition of HIV-1 replication. The cytotoxicity was comparable with the cytotoxicity of the D-enantiomer.

(+)- Trans-(5R,6R)-5-bromo-5-ethyl-6-ethoxy-5,6-dihydro-5′-O-valeryl-2′-deoxyuridine (3) and (+)- trans-(5R,6R)-5-bromo-5-ethyl-6-ethoxy-5,6-dihydro-3′,5′-di-O-valery[-2′-deoxyuridine (4) were synthesized in 55% and 8.6% yield, respectively, by esterification of the 5′-hydroxyl group of (+)- trans-(5R,6R)-5-bromo-5-ethyl-6-ethoxy-5,6-dihydro-2′-deoxyuridine (2) using valeryl chloride. [4-14C]-3 and [4-14C]-4 were synthesized in 79% and 64% chemical and radiochemical yield, respectively, by similar esterifications of [4-14C]-2. The double prodrug 3 was readily hydrolysed (> 95% in 8 min) to 5-ethyl-2′-deoxyuridine (EDU) by porcine liver esterase in vitro. The biotransformations of 2 and 3 were studied following i.v. injection of a 0.4 mmol/kg i.v. dose to male Balb/c mice. The single prodrug 2 was rapidly cleared (−1) than the AUC observed when EDU itself was injected (1.7 ± 0.2 μmol.h.g−1). The double prodrug 3 provided a sustained high concentration of EDU in blood, with an AUC for EDU, as a metabolite of 3, of 1.8 ± 0.2 μmol.hr.g−1. 5′-O-Valeryl-5-ethyl-2′-deoxyuridine and 3 were both detected in blood samples collected up to 35 min post i.v. injection. 5-Ethyluracil and 5-(1-hydroxyethyl)-uracil were identified as secondary metabolites of EDU, 2 and 3. Compared to [4-14C]-EDU, i.v. injection of [4-14C]-3 or [4-14C]-4 provided significantly higher (P < 0.001) radioactivity levels in the brain, but neither EDU, 2 or 3 protected mice against intracerebral herpes simplex virus infection. Hepatic uptakes of 2, 3 and 4, in mice, were similar to each other despite the respective substantial increases in both molecular weight and lipophilicity of this series. In rats, biliary excretion over the 0-4 h period after i.v. injection accounted for only 2.9-3.9% of the injected dose for these prodrugs.

A number of pyrimidine nucleosides, which may show two hydrogen bonding modes, have been prepared and tested for antiviral activity against a series of viruses. Whilst none of the compounds described showed significant activity against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the bicyclic 2′-deoxynucleoside, [2], derived from the base 6H,8H-3,4-dihydropyrimido[4,5-c][1,2]oxazin-7-one, was shown to inhibit herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) at similar concentrations as BVDU1 and ACV. Compounds 13, 6-(2-deoxyribofuranosyl)-6H,8H-2-methyl-3,4-dihydropyrimido[4,5-c][1,2]oxazin-7-one, and 14, N4-hydroxy-5-(2-chloroethyl)-2′-deoxyuridine, were as active as ACV against varicella-zoster virus (VZV).

Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6) was examined in vitro for its sensitivity to a broad range of nucleoside analogues, including acyclovir (ACV), ganciclovir (GCV), penciclovir (PCV), buciclovir (BCV), brivudin (BVDU), the N7-isomer of 6-deoxyganciclovir (S2242), foscarnet (phosphonoformic acid, PFA), and several acyclic nucleoside phosphonate (ANP) analogues such as (S)-HPMPA, (S)-HPMPC, PMEA and PMEDAP. Antiviral efficacy was monitored microscopically by the inhibitory effect of the compounds on HHV-6-induced cytopathic effect in human T-lymphoblastoid HSB-2 cells. In addition, a newly developed immunofluorescence/flow cytometric assay (FACS) was used to determine HHV-6-specific antigen expression. A close correlation was observed between the antiviral data obtained by the microscopic assay and the flow cytometric assay. Marked antiviral efficacy was noted for S2242, PFA and the ANP analogues (S)-HPMPA, (S)-HPMPC, (S)-cHPMPC, (S)-3-deaza-HPMPA, (S)-3-deaza-cHPMPA, (S)-HPMPG and (R)-HPMPG. Also, PMEA and PMEDAP proved highly active against HHV-6 infection, whereas (S)-FPMPA and (R)-PMPDAP were inactive. ACV was only slightly protective against HHV-6, and no activity was found for GCV, PCV, BCV and BVDU. Overall, the efficacy of the nucleoside analogues against HHV-6 appeared to correlate with their efficacy against human cytomegalovirus (HCMV).

The nucleoside analogue 2′,3′-dideoxyadenosine (ddA), the phosphonate isostere of 2′,3′-dideoxy-2′,3′-didehydro-adenosine (d4A) 5′-monophosphate (d4API), and the acyclic nucleoside phosphonates PMEoA, PMEA, FPMPA and PMPA are potent and selective antiretroviral agents. We found that these compounds are recognized as substrates by the PRPP synthetases from E. coli, rat liver and human erythrocytes, as their monophosphate and triphosphate form in the reverse and forward reaction, respectively. In particular, ddA-5′-monophosphate (ddAMP) and ddA-5′-triphosphate proved to be excellent substrates for the enzymes. D4API was a relatively good substrate of the rat liver and human erythrocyte PRPP synthetases. The acyclic nucleoside phosphonates were rather poor substrates, as evident from their low Vmax values. None of the PRPP synthetases are found to act stereospecifically: they recognized both the S- and R-enantiomers of FPMPA and PMPA in a comparably efficient manner. Our data indicate that PRPP synt...

The antiviral activity of water-soluble dextrans derivatized with varying percentages of carboxymethyl, benzylamide, and sulfonate groups was evaluated. Several of the polymers exhibited potent antiviral activity against a variety of enveloped viruses, but not against non-enveloped viruses, and only when present during virus adsorption. The mechanism of activity against retroviruses [i.e. human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)] and herpes viruses (i.e. human cytomegalovirus) could be ascribed to inhibition of virus binding to the cells. An absolute requirement for anti-HSV activity appeared to be a sufficiently high percentage of benzylamide and benzylamide sulfonate groups. This did not, however, apply for human cytomegalovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, and HIV. The sensitivity of the latter viruses appeared to be influenced by factors other than the global chemical composition, which leads us to assume that physical factors such as the distribution and sequence of the substituents on the sugar backbone play an important role in the antiviral activity of the derivatized dextrans.

A series of novel 2'-deoxyuridines with a thienyl substituent in the 5-position were synthesized as potential anti-HSV-1 agents. The brominated derivatives (1d, 1e and 3b) were obtained via halogenation reactions of the protected 5-(thien-2-yl)-2'-deoxyuridine and 5-(thien-3-yl)-2'-deoxyuridine, respectively. The palladium-catalysed cross-coupling reaction with stannylated thiophene was used for the synthesis of (E)-5-(2-thienylvinyl)-2'-deoxyuridine and 5-(5,2'-dithien-2-yl)-2'-deoxyuridine. These compounds show moderate to good activity against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) in the order of decreasing activity 1d>4>1e>3b similar to 5. Finally, two substituted 5-isoxazol derivatives of 2'-deoxyuridine (6a and 6b) were obtained via a 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition of the protected 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine. These new compounds demonstrated poor affinity for the virus-specific enzyme thymidine kinase. ispartof: Antiviral Chemistry & Chemotherapy vol:6 issue:4 pages:262-270 status: published

Resistant herpes simplex virus type 1 strains were obtained under the selective pressure of acyclovir, ganciclovir, bromovinyldeoxyuridine, foscarnet, 2-phosphonylmethoxyehtyl (PME) derivatives of adenine and 2,6-diaminopurine, 3-hydroxy-2-phosphonylmethoxypropyl derivatives of adenine and cytosine, and 2-amino-7-(1,3-dihydroxy-2-propoxymethyl)purine (S2242). The drug susceptibility profiles of resistant strains point to differences in the modes of action of PME and 3-hydroxy-2-phosphonylmethoxypropyl derivatives and common mechanisms of action of foscarnet, S2242, and PME derivatives against herpes simplex virus type 1 replication.

A variety of aurintricarboxylic acid (ATA) polymer analogues were prepared by substituting certain salicylic acid derivatives and carbonyl compounds for salicylic acid and formaldehyde in the ATA polymerization reaction. The new polymers were evaluated for prevention of the cytopathic effects of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1 and HIV-2) in MT-4 cell culture, HIV-1 in CEM cell culture, and human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) in HEL cell culture. The abilities of the analogues to inhibit syncytium formation between HIV-1- or HIV-2-infected HUT-78 cells and uninfected MOLT-4 cells were also evaluated. Several of the new analogues were found to be equipotent with ATA and dextran sulfate against HIV-1, HIV-2 and HCMV. The anti-HIV potencies of the new substances paralleled their activities against HCMV. The antiviral activities of the new analogues probably result from inhibition of virion binding to the cell membrane. ispartof: Antivir Chem Chemoth vol:6 issue:3 pages:179-186 status: published

The HIV-1-specific oxathiin carboxanilide derivative 1-methylethyl 2-chloro-5-[[(5,6-dihydro-2-methyl-1,4-oxathiin-3-yl)carbonyl]amino]benzoate (NSC 615985) (designated UC84) has potent activity against HIV-1(IIIB) (50% effective concentration: 0.015 μg ml−1). UC84 was found to select for a 138-Lys mutant virus strain in HIV-1-infected CEM cell cultures. When the 138-Lys mutation was introduced solely in the p51 subunit of the p51/p66 reverse transcriptase (RT) heterodimer by site-directed mutagenesis, the enzyme proved 10-fold more resistant to UC84 than when the amino acid mutation was introduced solely in the p66 subunit of the p51/p66 RT heterodimer. These data provided clear evidence for a structural and functional role of the p51 subunit in the sensitivity/resistance of the enzyme to UC84. UC84 also proved to be virtually inactive against mutant HIV-1 strains containing the 100-lle, 106-Ala, 138-Lys or 181-Cys mutation in their RT. However, minor structural changes in the molecule, such as replacement of the oxygen of the amide moiety by sulfur, or the isopropyl ester moiety by cyclopentyl or a secondary butyl, or the methyl group of the oxathiin part by ethyl, made the compound markedly more inhibitory to one or several HIV-1 mutant strains. For example, compound 131 (1-methylethyl 2-chloro-5-[[(5,6-dihydro-2-methyl-1,4-oxathiin-3-yl)thioxomethyl]amino]benzoate was only 2-fold more active than the parent compound UC84 against wild-type HIV-1, but 30- to 100-fold more inhibitory to HIV-1 mutant strains that contained the 100-11e, 106-A1a, 138-Lys or 181-Cys in their RT. These findings should be taken into account when selecting suitable drug candidates for the treatment of HIV-1 infections, particularly those that have developed resistance to other non-nucleoside RT inhibitors (NNRTIs).

A series of polyanionic compounds was synthesized and evaluated for their activity against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1, HIV-2) and various other RNA and DNA viruses. Several compounds, i.e., 2p, 3p, 8p, 13p, 14p, 15p, 17p, 18p, and 19p, proved active against HIV-1 within the concentration range of 0.1-3 micrograms/mL while not being toxic to the host cells (CEM, MT-4) at concentrations up to 100 micrograms/mL or higher. As a rule, these polyanionic compounds proved also active, albeit at somewhat higher concentrations than those required for HIV-1 inhibition, against a number of other enveloped viruses, including HIV-2, human cytomegalovirus, influenza A virus, respiratory syncytial virus, and arenaviruses (Junin and Tacaribe). Among the most potent HIV-1 inhibitors ranked compounds 18p and 19p, the sodium salts of N-methylamides obtained by polymerization of monomers prepared starting from 10-undecenoyl chloride and omega-aminoalkanoic acids.

A large variety of carboxanilide derivatives in which the original oxathiin moiety present in the prototype compound UC84 was replaced by a non-cyclic lipophilic entity has been evaluated for their inhibitory effect against wild-type human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1/III B ) and several mutant viruses derived thereof (i.e. HIV-1/138-Lys, HIV-1/181-Cys, HIV-1/106-Ala and HIV-1/100-Ile). Isopropoxy was the most favorable substituent resulting in molecules that were markedly inhibitory to the wild-type (EC 50 0.004–0.04 μg/ml) as well as the mutant HIV-1 strains (EC 50 0.06–0.75 μg/ml). In this respect, they proved superior to several other HIV-1-specific non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) that are currently the subject of clinical trials. One of the most potent HIV-1 inhibitors among the thiocarboxanilide derivatives, namely UC38, selected for a mutant virus strain in which Lys at position 101 and Gly at position 190 of the reverse transcriptase was replaced by Glu.

Synthesis of acyclo-C-nucleoside derivatives in the imidazo[1,2-a]pyrimidine series was reported. None of the evaluated compounds showed appreciable antiviral activity.

Eight new 5-heteroaromatic substituted analogues of 2′-deoxyuridine have been synthesized and evaluated for their inhibitory properties against a panel of different viruses. Several analogues containing a substituted thiophene moiety proved to be highly selective against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1).

Combinations of high concentrations of AZT with BVDU, acyclovir (ACV) or ganciclovir (GCV) show antagonism against TK+ HSV-1, but not TK+ VZV strains, in cell cultures. When BVDU and AZT were used in combination against TK− HSV-1, TK− HSV-2 and TK− VZV strains, a pronounced inhibition of viral replication was observed. This potentiating effect was not seen if AZT was combined with ACV or GCV.

Conjugate addition of an anionic nucleophile (nucleobase) to an active triple bond (α, β unsaturated carboxylate or phosphonate) was used for preparing α-ethenyl carboxylate or phosphonate derivatives of purines and pyrimidines.

We have demonstrated that thymidylate synthase (TS) activity is enhanced by more than 10- to 20-fold in HCMV-infected HEL cells as compared to non-infected cells. The increase in TS activity was found (i) to parallel the progression of the viral cytopathic effect over a 5-days period, (ii) to be independent of viral DNA synthesis and to result from an early event in the viral replicative cycle. Several compounds known to be targeted at TS, such as 5-fluoro-dUrd, 5-trifluoromethyl-dUrd, and 5-formyl-dUrd, inhibited TS activity in HCMV-infected cells and, concomitantly, displayed HCMV activity. The exact impact of inhibition of TS activity in the overall anti-HCMV activity of the test compounds remains however to be determined.

9-(2-Phosphonylmethoxyethyl)adenine (PMEA), the prototype compound of a well-defined structural class of potent and selective anti-retroviral agents, was found to be endowed with long-lasting and dose-dependent differentiation-inducing properties in human erythroleukemia K562 cell cultures.

Based on the structure-activity relationship for antiviral activity, a series of 3′-deoxy-3′- N -functionalized thymidine analogues derived from 3′-amino-3′-deoxythymidine was synthesized. These compounds were evaluated for their antiviral activity. Three of the prepared molecules namely 3′-(1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)carbimidoylamino-3′-deoxythymidine 6 , 3′-(3-amino-1-methyl-1,2,4-triazol-5-yl)amino-3′-deoxythymidine 8b and 3′- N -cyano- O -phenylisourea-3′-deoxythymidine 7 show moderate but selective in vitro activity against HIV-1 and HIV-2. These data demonstrate that some steric bulk in the 3′-position is compatible with anti-HIV activity

The bis-pivaloyloxymethyl(POM)- and diphenyl-ester prodrugs of the broad spectrum antiviral agent 9-(2-phosphonylmethoxyethyl)adenine (PMEA) have been evaluated in vivo for antiviral efficacy upon oral administration in severe combined immune deficiency (SCID) mice infected with Moloney murine sarcoma virus (MSV). Oral bis (POM)-PMEA proved highly efficient in delaying MSV-induced tumor formation and associated death, its effect being equal to that of subcutaneous PMEA at an equimolar dose. Compared to bis(POM)-PMEA, oral diphenyl-PMEA had lower antiviral efficacy, whereas PMEA as such was poorly effective when administered orally. Our studies indicate that bis(POM)-PMEA must have a favorable oral bioavailability and justify its clinical investigation as an oral prodrug of PMEA in the treatment of HIV infections.

Diethyl and dibutyl α-anilinobenzylphosphonates and [α-(4-benzeneazoanilino)benzyl]-phosphonates and their new palladium(II) halide complexes were evaluated for their cytostatic and antiviral activity in different cell systems.

Sixteen freshly isolated varicella-zoster virus (VZV) strains were evaluated in vitro, in parallel with two reference strains expressing a functional thymidine kinase (TK+) (Oka and YS) and two thymidine kinase-deficient mutants (TK-) (07-1 and YS-R), for their susceptibility to a broad range of antiviral compounds. The following compounds were included: acyclovir (ACV), brivudine (BVDU), sorivudine (BVaraU), other BVDU congeners such as BTDU, CTDU, CVDC and CVDU, ganciclovir (GCV), FIAC, araT, araA, araC, foscarnet (PFA), phosphonoacetic acid (PAA), the acyclic nucleoside phosphonates HPMPC, cHPMPC, HPMPA, cHPMPA, HPMPc3A, PMEA and PMEDAP, the N7-isomeric acyclic nucleoside analogue N7AP, penciclovir (PCV), compounds 882C87 and H2G and two oxetanocin derivatives OXT-A and OXT-G. Fourteen of the 16 clinical isolates displayed the following order of decreasing selectivity against VZV: BVaraUBVDUCVDU approximately CVDCH2GN7AP approximately CTDU approximately BTDU approximately OXT-G approximately 882C87ACVFIAC approximately araTHPMPC approximately cHPMPC approximately HPMPA approximately HPMPc3A approximately cHPMPAPCV approximately GCV approximately OXT-APMEDAP approximately PMEAPFA approximately PAA approximately araAaraC. Two VZV strains (isolated from the cerebrospinal fluid of an AIDS patient) that were shown to have a truncated TK were clearly resistant to all the compounds that need the viral TK for their phosphorylation, while sensitivity to the acyclic nucleoside phosphonates, PFA, PAA, OXT-A and araA, remained unchanged. A slight (5- and 10-fold) increase was noted in the 50% inhibitory concentration of N7AP and OXT-G, respectively, for the TK- VZV strains as compared to the TK+ VZV strains. Ganciclovir and FIAC also showed a marked decrease in their activity against these two strains, but this was not as pronounced as for the other viral TK-dependent drugs. From our results, it appears that although acyclic nucleoside phosphonates may not have as favourable a therapeutic index as drugs requiring the viral TK, they should be considered for the treatment of TK- VZV life-threatening infections that are resistant to the viral TK-dependent drugs.

A series of 23 1-[(2-hydroxyethoxy)methyl]-6-(phenylthio)thymine derivatives that were highly potent inhibitors of wild-type human immunodeficiency virus type 1 strain IIIB (HIV-1/IIIB) replication in CEM cells were evaluated against a panel of HIV-1 mutant strains containing the replacement of leucine by isoleucine at position 100 (100-Leu-->Ile), 103-Lys-->Asn, 106-Val-->Ala, 138-Glu-->Lys, 181-Tyr-->Cys, 181-Tyr-->Ile, or 188-Tyr-->His in their reverse transcriptase (RT). A different structure-antiviral activity relationship was found, depending on the nature of the mutated amino acid in the HIV-1 RT. The results show that 5-ethyl-1-ethoxymethyl-6-(3,5-dimethylbenzyl)uracil, 5-ethyl-1-ethoxymethyl-6-(3,5-dimethylphenylthio)uracil, and 5-ethyl-1-ethoxymethyl-6-(3,5-dimethylphenylthio)-2-thiouracil remain active against the majority of viruses containing single mutations which confer resistance to nonnucleoside RT inhibitors.

Purpose: The authors previously conducted a pilot, dose-escalating study which suggested that a 20-μg dose of intravitreal cidofovir (HPMPC) may be safe and effective in treating Cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis in humans. The purpose of this series is to expand the authors' prior experience with the 20-μg dose of cidofovir as the sole treatment for CMV retinitis in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Methods: The study design was an unmasked consecutive case series trial in a single-center institutional retina referral practice. Eligible patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome had active CMV retinitis ~n at least one eye and no evidence of extraocular CMV disease. Patients received a 20-μg cidofovir trans gars plana injection and were treated with concomitant oral probenecid. Retreatments were performed for progression of retinitis as determined by serial fundus photographs judged independently by three observers. The primary outcome was time to retinitis progression determined by Kaplan-Meier analysis. Both globes of one patient who had unilateral retinitis were examined pathologically. Results: There were 37 cidofovir injections in 24 eyes of 17 patients. The median time to retinitis progression after the initial 24 injections was 55 days. The median time to retinitis progression after 8 repeat cidofovir injections was 63 days. There was a significant decrease in intraocular pressure from baseline to both 2 and 4 weeks after injection. A mild to moderate iritis developed in five (20.8%) eyes that responded well to topical medications. Results of histopathologic examination of one treated globe did not show any significant toxic effects. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that prolonged arrest of the progression of CMV retinitis may be obtained with a single 20-μg cidofovir intravitreal injection. In addition, the effect of the drug appears to be maintained after a second injection. The effects of cidofovir in causing uveitis and a slight lowering of the intraocular pressure require further study.

9-(2-phosphonylmethoxyethyl)adenine (PMEA) is the prototype compound of a series of acyclic nucleoside phosphonate derivatives endowed with potent and selective anti-retroviral activity in vitro and in vivo. We have now found that PMEA is also a potent inducer of differentiation of a number of tumor cells, including human erythroleukemia K562 cells, rat choriocarcinoma RCHO cells and human acute promyelocytic leukemic HL-60 cells. At 10 μM PMEA, rat RCHO cell cultures could be almost fully differentiated, and at 50 μM PMEA, approximately 50% of the K562 cells could be triggered to produce hemoglobin. The differentiating activity of butyric acid was at least partially additive to that of PMEA when both drugs were combined in K562 cell cultures. PMEA needs to be present for at least 2 or 3 days in the K562 cell cultures to achieve optimal differentiating activity. This suggests that either a PMEA metabolite and/or its anti-metabolic effects may be responsible for differentiation of the tumor cells. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Human papillomaviruses (HPV) are associated with benign lesions and show specificity towards the location or tissues that they infect. HPVs are responsible for warts. Among more than 60 different HPV types known to occur in humans, a strong association has been found between types 16 and 18 and cervical cancer, and such an association is also suspected for types 31, 33, 35, 45, 51, 52, and 56. We describe the effects of (S)-1-(3-hydroxy-2-phosphonyl-methoxypropy Dcytosine (HPMPC), following local intratumoral injection, in a 69-year-old woman with hypopharyngeal and esophageal papillomatous lesions, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) positive for HPV types 16 and 18, that relapsed after surgery and that also failed to respond to Nd-Yag laser photocoagulation and al-pha-interferon treatment (6 × 106 U five times a week for 4 weeks followed by three times a week for 2 months). HPMPC was given at 1.25 mg/kg, with a sclerosing needle, through the biopsy channel of a video-endoscope, directly into the tumor, from March until July 1993 at seven different occasions. The first four injections were given at an interval of 1 week at the level of the hypopharynx. The next three injections were given at an interval of 3 to 5 weeks. During the fourth to the seventh session, half of the dose was injected into the hypopharyngeal and the other half into the esophageal tumor. Three further injections of HPMPC were administered at the level of the esophageal tumor in September 1993 with 2-week intervals. After HPMPC treatment, the lesions became smaller and flat until they completely disappeared. Endoscopic examination in February 1994 did not show any sign of papilloma in the esophagus or hypopharynx. These results suggest an in vivo efficacy of HPMPC for the treatment of papillomatous lesions due to HPV. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

A series of new AZT conjugates with alkyl and oxyalkyl ether phospholipids was synthesized and evaluated for inhibitory activities against HIV-1 and HIV-2. The alkoxyethyl derivatives 6a-c proved 3- to 5-fold more active against HIV-1 and HIV-2 than the alkyl analogues 6d-f. A trend for higher activity with longer alkyl side-chains was observed. However, the analogues with the shortest chain possessed the most favourable therapeutic index.

Several new analogues of the novel anti-HIV agent cosalane have been synthesized and evaluated as inhibitors of HIV-1 integrase and protease, HIV-1 replication, HIV-1 and HIV-2 cytopathicity, HIV-1- and HIV-2-mediated syncytium formation, and cytopathicity of a variety of human pathogenic viruses. The congeners displayed enhanced potencies relative to cosalane itself as inhibitors of HIV-1 integrase and protease. The two most potent analogues against HIV-1 integrase displayed IC50 values of 2.2 microM, while the three most potent compounds against HIV-1 protease had IC50 values in the 0.35-0.39 microM range. In addition to its activity against HIV-1 and HIV-2 cytopathicity, cosalane inhibited the cytopathic effects of herpes simplex virus-1, herpes simplex virus-2, and human cytomegalovirus at concentrations that were well below the cytotoxic concentrations. Potentially useful antiviral activities were also revealed for some of the new cosalane congeners against influenza virus, Junin virus, and Tacaribe virus.

A number of N4-hydroxy and N4-amino derivatives of 3′-azido-2′,3′-dideoxy-5-methylcytidine have been synthesized and tested for antiviral activity against HIV-1 and HIV-2. The N4-phenylamino and N4-dimethylamino analogues show marked anti-HIV activity which is comparable to that of AZT.

Summary A number of 1-aryl-4-methyl-1-penten-3-ones 1 were converted to the corresponding Mannich bases 2 and analogues 3 . Attempts to form the azines 4 from several members in series 1 led to the isolation of the corresponding pyrazolines 5 or aryl aldehyde azines 6 . Replacement of the isopropyl group of a compound in series 1 by methyl and ethyl functions led to ketones that reacted with hydrazine producing the corresponding azines. The Mannich bases displayed greater activity than the precursor ketones towards murine P388 and L1210 leukemia cells as well as to a panel of human tumour cell lines. Certain of the Mannich bases had selective toxicity towards some human tumour cell lines and others to L1210 cells (in contrast to human T lymphocytes). Several drug-resistant cell lines were shown to be free from cross resistance to a number of the Mannich bases.

The efficacy of 2-amino-7-[(1,3-dihydroxy-2-propoxy)methyl]purine (S2242) was evaluated in several animal models for herpesvirus infections. Compound S2242 was more effective than acyclovir (i) when administered subcutaneously in a model for herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1)-induced mortality in immunocompetent mice and (ii) when applied topically to hairless (hr/hr) mice that had been infected intracutaneously with HSV-2. In SCID (severe combined immune deficient) mice that had been infected with a thymidine kinase-deficient HSV-1 strain, S2242 (administered subcutaneously at a dosage of 50 mg/kg/day) completely protected against virus-induced mortality whereas foscarnet was less effective and acyclovir had no or little protective effect. Compound S2242 was far more effective than ganciclovir in preventing or delaying murine cytomegalovirus-induced mortality in immunocompetent and SCID mice. The compound was more effective when a given dose was fractionated and administered on subsequent days than when this dose was administered in one single injection. A 5-day treatment course with S2242 (10 and 50 mg/kg/day) for newborn mice that had been infected with a lethal dose of murine cytomegalovirus suppressed virus-induced mortality. Compound S2242 had no inhibitory effect on the growth of weanling (at 50 mg/kg for 5 days) and 3- to 4-week-old mice (at doses of 50 to 200 mg/kg for 6 weeks). However, akin to ganciclovir, compound S2242 significantly reduced testicle weight, testicle morphology, and spermatogenesis.

Starting from (±)-cis-2-hydroxymethylcyclohexylamine, a series of cyclohexane-derived cis-1,2-disubstituted carbonucleoside analogues with a 6- or 2,6-purine or 8-azapurine base were synthesized. The antiviral and antitumoral in vitro effects of the new compounds were evaluated.

A series of new homo and heterodimers of ddI has been synthesized. A glutarate diester spacer was used to covalently couple ddI onto ddI, AZT or d4T.

Benzyl-substituted cycloSal-d4T monophosphates were prepared and evaluated for their ability to release d4TMP selectively. In contrast to previously reported derivatives, two of the new compounds release d4TMP as the sole product while two others gave the expected benzyl phosphate diesters. However, these diesters were surprisingly stable against degradation to release d4TMP.

Several ribavirin congeners containing a hexitol moiety were prepared via ring opening of two different epoxides with the methylcarboxylate ester of triazole and further elaboration. Unfortunately, none of the newly synthesized compounds displayed appreciable antiviral activity.

Capravirine (S-1153, AG1549), a 1,2,4,5-tetrasubstituted imidazole derivative, was firstly reported by the Shionogi company to inhibit HIV-1 strains which were resistant to other NNRTIs. However, safety and efficacy studies showed that capravirine had no specific advantages over currently used NNRTIs. Consequently, clinical trials were discontinued after phase IIb. Notwithstanding, with aim to obtain novel inhibitors against drug-resistant HIV-1 strains, an in-depth analysis of the particular binding mode of capravirine, together with the wide use of analogue-based chemical evolution strategies, such as bioisosteric replacement, molecular hybridization, prodrug approach, ligand efficiency, etc., gave a huge impetus to the optimization of capravirine. Especially, lersivirine (UK-453,061) was selected for further clinical evaluation due to its very impressive potency against a broad panel of key HIV-1 mutants, safety, pharmacokinetics and other pharmaceutical factors. In this review, we present a comprehensive survey of the literature on the development of capravirine-based NNRTIs. Other interesting NNRTIs with the same or similar binding mode like capravirine have been reported to highlight the structural diversity, pharmacophoric similarity of NNRTIs, which provided important hints for drug design.

The cattle tick Rhipicephalus microplus is currently invading the West African region, and little information is available on the spread of this exotic tick in this region. We set out a country-wide field survey to determine its current distribution in Benin. Ticks were collected on cattle from 106 farms selected by random sampling covering all regions of the country. Rhipicephalus annulatus was found on 70 % of all farms, R. decoloratus on 42 %, R. geigyi on 58 %, and R. microplus on 49 %. There is a clear geographic separation between the indigenous Rhipicephalus species and R. microplus. Rhipicephalus annulatus occurs mainly in the northern departments, but it was also observed in lower numbers in locations in the south. The presence of R. decoloratus is limited to the northern region, and in most locations, this tick makes up a small proportion of the collected ticks. The tick R. geigyi tends to be dominant, but occurs only in the four northern departments. The observations concerning R. microplus are entirely different, this species occurs in the southern and central region. The results of this survey confirm the invasive character and displacement properties of R. microplus, since in less than a decade it has colonized more than half of the country and has displaced indigenous ticks of the same genus in many of the sampled locations.

Recent progress are reported on a compact cesium cell atomic frequency standard based on pulsed Coherent Population Trapping interaction in the Dicke regime. Main short term and long term limiting parameters have been identified. Last improvements have permitted to reach a stability of 7×10−13 at 1sec and 2×10−14 at 2000 s. The noise characterization process is presented in this article.

A series of novel 2,4-disubstituted-7-methyl-1,1,3-trioxo-2H,4H-pyrazolo[4,5-e][1,2,4]thiadiazines (PTDs) was prepared starting from a ring of pyrazolo[4,5-e][1,2,4]thiadiazine nuclei with two different alkyl halides obtained by a facile one-pot reaction. The structures of all synthesized compounds were confirmed by

SUMMARYIn the last decade, mobile technology offered new opportunities and challenges in animal health surveillance. It began with the use of basic mobile phones and short message service (SMS) for disease reporting, and the development of smartphones and other mobile tools has expanded the possibilities for data collection. These tools assist in the collection of data as well as geo-referenced mapping of diseases, and mapping, visualization and identification of vectors such as ticks. In this article we share our findings about new technologies in the domain of animal health surveillance, based on several projects using a wide range of mobile tools, each with their specific applicability and limitations. For each of the tools used, a comprehensive overview is given about its applicability, limitations, technical requirements, cost and also the perception of the users.The evaluation of the tools clearly shows the importance of selecting the appropriate tool depending on the envisaged data to be collected. Accessibility, visualization and cost related to data collection differ significantly among the tools tested. This paper can thus be seen as a practical guide to the currently available tools.

Tetrahydro-imidazo[4,5,1-jk][1,4]-benzodiazepin-2(1H)-one and -thione (TIBO) derivatives were shown to specifically block human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) replication through a unique interaction with the HIV-1 reverse transcriptase (RT). Through further modification of the lead compounds and structure-activity relationship analysis several new TIBO derivatives that show high potency, selectivity, and specificity against HIV-1 have been obtained. A new TIBO derivative, R86183, inhibits the replication of HIV-1, but not HIV-2, in a variety of CD4+ T-cell lines and peripheral blood lymphocytes, at a concentration of 0.3 to 30 nM, which is at least 4 orders of magnitude lower than the 50% cytotoxic concentration. Whereas an HIV-1 strain containing the Leu-100-->Ile mutation in the RT gene is about 400-fold less susceptible, R86183 still inhibits the replication of an HIV-1 strain containing the Tyr-181-->Cys RT mutation by 50% at a concentration of 130 nM. R86183 inhibits the poly(C).oligo(dG)12-18-directed HIV-1 RT reaction by 50% at a concentration of 57 nM. The antiviral activity of 22 TIBO derivatives in cell culture correlated well with their activity against HIV-1 RT. No such correlation was found for their cytotoxicity. The combination of R86183 with either zidovudine or didanosine resulted in a synergistic inhibition of HIV-1 (strain IIIB) replication. Combination of R86183 with the protease inhibitor Ro31-8959 was found to be additive. Also described is a dilution protocol circumventing overestimation and underestimation of antiviral activity due to adherence to plastic surfaces.

The prototype compounds of three different classes of nucleoside phosphonates [i.e. 9-(2-phosphonomethoxyethyl)adenine (PMEA), 9-(2-phosphonomethoxyethoxy)adenine (PMEoA) and 9-[(2R,5R)-2,5-dihydro-5-(phosphonomethoxy)-2-furanyl]adenine (D4API)] were investigated and compared for their antiviral activities. The three test compounds showed a marked inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and type 2 (HIV-2) in CEW and MT-4 cell cultures [50% effective concentration (EC50): 0.8-14μm]. D4API was 2- and 15-fold more inhibitory than PMEA and PMEoA, respectively. In contrast, the activity of PMEA against human hepatitis B virus (HHBV) in human hepatoma Hep G2 2.2.15 cells was 5- and 10-fold more pronounced than the activities of PMEoA and D4API, respectively (EC50 1.2μm versus 10 and 6 μm, respectively). The inhibitory activity of D4API against Moloney murine sarcoma virus (MSV)-induced C3H/3T3 cell transformation was superior to the activities of PMEA and PMEoA by at least one order of magnitude (EC50 for D4API 1.3μM, versus 2.8 and 14 μM for PMEA and PMEoA, respectively). The markedly greater inhibitory effect of D4API on MSV in vitro was in agreement with our In vivo findings that D4API inhibited MSV-induced tumour formation in newborn mice and delayed the MSV-associated animal death at a lower dose than PMEA or PMEoA. Both PMEA and D4API emerged as promising compounds that warrant further investigation for their anti-retrovirus and anti-hepadnavirus activities in vivo.

2-Amino-7-[(1,3-dihydroxy-2-propoxy)methyl]purine (compound S2242) represents the first antivirally active nucleoside analog with the side chain attached to the N-7 position of the purine ring. Compound S2242 strongly inhibits the in vitro replication of both herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2) (50% effective concentration [EC50], 0.1 to 0.2 microgram/ml), varicella-zoster virus (EC50, 0.01 to 0.02 microgram/ml) and thymidine kinase (TK)-deficient strains of HSV (EC50, 0.4 microgram/ml) and varicella-zoster virus (EC50, 0.2 to 0.5 microgram/ml). Potent activity was also observed against murine cytomegalovirus (EC50, 1 microgram/ml), human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) (EC50, 0.04 to 0.1 microgram/ml), and human herpesvirus 6 (EC50, 0.0005 microgram/ml). Compound S2242 (i) was not cytotoxic to confluent Vero, HeLa, or human fibroblast cells at concentrations of > 100 micrograms/ml, (ii) proved somewhat more cytostatic to Vero, HEL, HeLa, and C127I cells than ganciclovir, and (iii) was markedly more cytostatic than ganciclovir to the growth of the human lymphocytic cell lines HSB-2 and CEM degrees. In contrast to ganciclovir, (i) compound S2242 proved not to be cytocidal to murine mammary carcinoma (FM3A) cells transfected with the HSV-1 or HSV-2 TK gene, (ii) exogenously added thymidine had only a limited effect on its anti-HSV-1 activity, and (iii) the compound was not phosphorylated by HSV-1-encoded TK derived from HSV-1 TK-transfected FM3A cells, indicating that the compound is not activated by a virally encoded TK. Compound S2242 inhibited (i) the expression of late HCHV antigens at an EC50 of 0.07 microgram/ml (0.6 microgram/ml for ganciclovir) and (ii) HCMV DNA synthesis at an EC50 of 0.1 microgram/ml (0.32 microgram/ml for ganciclovir), i.e., values that are close to the EC50S for inhibition of HCMV-induced cytopathogenicity. Neither ganciclovir nor S2242 had any effect on the expression of immediate-early HCMV antigens, which occurs before viral DNA synthesis. In time-of-addition experiments, S2242 behaved like ganciclovir and acyclovir; i.e., the addition of the drugs could be delayed until the onset of viral DNA synthesis.

Determination of the three-dimensional structure of the human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) reverse transcriptase (RT) has indicated a totally different folding for the 51-kDa subunit (p51) than for the 66-kDa subunit (p66). The polymerase catalytic site is located on the p66 subunit. Moreover, the HIV-1-specific RT inhibitors, also designated as the non-nucleoside RT inhibitors (NNRTIs), select for amino acid mutations that afford resistance to these compounds and are clustered in the palm domain of the HIV-1 RT p66 subunit. This pocket is located in the vicinity of, but clearly distinct from, the polymerase active site. However, for the NNRTIs that belong to the class of the [2',5'-bis-O-(tert-butyldimethylsilyl)-3'-spiro-5''-(4''-amino-1'',2''- oxathiole- 2'',2''-dioxide)] (TSAO) derivatives, the resistance mutation is located at position Glu138. On the p66 subunit, this amino acid is distant from the binding site of the HIV-1-specific RT inhibitors. When the TSAO-specific resistance mutation Glu138-->Lys was introduced solely in the p51 subunit of the RT p66/p51 heterodimer, the enzyme proved completely resistant to TSAO-m3T but retained full sensitivity to TIBO R82150 and ddGTP. On the other hand, when the mutation was introduced only in the p66 subunit the enzyme remained equally sensitive to the inhibitory effects of TSAO-m3T, TIBO R82150, and ddGTP. Our data provide compelling evidence for a structural and functional role of the p51 subunit in the sensitivity and/or resistance of the enzyme to the NNRTIs.

Dypiridamole (DPM) is widely used in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases as a coronary vasodilator and inhibitor of platelet aggregation. Phosphonylmethoxyethyl (PME) and 3-hydroxy-2-phosphonylmethoxypropyl (HPMP) derivatives of purines and pyrimidines are potent and selective inhibitors of varicella-zoster virus (VZV), herpes simplex virus (HSV) and human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). We have found that DPM markedly potentiates the antiviral effects of the PME derivatives of adenine (PMEA) and 2,6-diaminopurine (PMEDAP), and of the HPMP derivatives of adenine (HPMPA), 3-deazaadenine (HPMPc3A) and cyclic HPMPA (cHPMPA). This was reflected by a significant decrease in the 50% inhibitory concentration of the acyclic nucleoside phosphonates for VZV-, HSV- and HCMV-induced cytopathic effect or plaque formation. DPM did not enhance the activity of vidarabine, acyclovir or ganciclovir. These results were confirmed by virus yield assays (for HSV and HCMV) and flow cytometry (for VZV).