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NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) is an FAD containing quinone reductase that catalyzes the 2-electron reduction of a broad range of quinones. The 2-electron reduction of quinones to hydroquinones by NQO1 is believed to be a detoxification process since this reaction bypasses the formation of the highly reactive semiquinone. NQO1 is expressed at high levels in normal epithelium, endothelium and adipocytes as well as in many human solid tumors. In addition to its function as a quinone reductase NQO1 has been shown to reduce superoxide and regulate the 20 S proteasomal degradation of proteins including p53. Biochemical studies have indicated that NQO1 is primarily located in the cytosol, however, lower levels of NQO1 have also been found in the nucleus. In these studies we demonstrate using immunocytochemistry and confocal imaging that NQO1 was found associated with mitotic spindles in cells undergoing division. The association of NQO1 with the mitotic spindles was observed in many different human cell lines including nontransformed cells (astrocytes, HUVEC) immortalized cell lines (HBMEC, 16HBE) and cancer (pancreatic adenocarcinoma, BXPC3). Confocal analysis of double-labeling experiments demonstrated co-localization of NQO1with alpha-tubulin in mitotic spindles. In studies with BxPc-3 human pancreatic cancer cells the association of NQO1 with mitotic spindles appeared to be unchanged in the presence of NQO1 inhibitors ES936 or dicoumarol suggesting that NQO1 can associate with the mitotic spindle and still retain catalytic activity. Analysis of archival human squamous lung carcinoma tissue immunostained for NQO1 demonstrated positive staining for NQO1 in the spindles of mitotic cells. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate for the first time the association of the quinone reductase NQO1 with the mitotic spindle in human cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ability to automatically segment an image into distinct regions is a critical aspect in many visual processing applications. Because inaccuracies often exist in automatic segmentation, manual segmentation is necessary in some application domains to correct mistakes, such as required in the reconstruction of neuronal processes from microscopic images. The goal of the automated segmentation tool is traditionally to produce the highest-quality segmentation, where quality is measured by the similarity to actual ground truth, so as to minimize the volume of manual correction necessary. Manual correction is generally orders-of-magnitude more time consuming than automated segmentation, often making handling large images intractable. Therefore, we propose a more relevant goal: minimizing the turn-around time of automated/manual segmentation while attaining a level of similarity with ground truth. It is not always necessary to inspect every aspect of an image to generate a useful segmentation. As such, we propose a strategy to guide manual segmentation to the most uncertain parts of segmentation. Our contributions include 1) a probabilistic measure that evaluates segmentation without ground truth and 2) a methodology that leverages these probabilistic measures to significantly reduce manual correction while maintaining segmentation quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Transglutaminase type 2 (TG2) is a ubiquitously expressed member of the transglutaminase family, capable of mediating a transamidation reaction between a variety of protein substrates. TG2 also has a unique role as a G-protein with GTPase activity. In response to GDP/GTP binding and increases in intracellular calcium levels, TG2 can undergo a large conformational change that reciprocally modulates the enzymatic activities of TG2. We have generated a TG2 biosensor that allows for quantitative assessment of TG2 conformational changes in live cells using Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET), as measured by fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM). Quantifying FRET efficiency with this biosensor provides a robust assay to quickly measure the effects of cell stress, changes in calcium levels, point mutations and chemical inhibitors on the conformation and localization of TG2 in living cells. The TG2 FRET biosensor was validated using established TG2 conformational point mutants, as well as cell stress events known to elevate intracellular calcium levels. We demonstrate in live cells that inhibitors of TG2 transamidation activity can differentially influence the conformation of the enzyme. The irreversible inhibitor of TG2, NC9, forces the enzyme into an open conformation, whereas the reversible inhibitor CP4d traps TG2 in the closed conformation. Thus, this biosensor provides new mechanistic insights into the action of two TG2 inhibitors and defines two new classes based on ability to alter TG2 conformation in addition to inhibiting transamidation activity. Future applications of this biosensor could be to discover small molecules that specifically alter TG2 conformation to affect GDP/GTP or calcium binding. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK3) is a constitutively active protein kinase in brain. Increasing evidence has shown that GSK3 acts as a modulator in the serotonin neurotransmission system, including direct interaction with serotonin 1B (5-HT1B) receptors in a highly selective manner and prominent modulating effect on 5-HT1B receptor activity. In this study, we utilized the serotonin neuron-selective GSK3β knockout (snGSK3β-KO) mice to test if GSK3β in serotonin neurons selectively modulates 5-HT1B autoreceptor activity and function. The snGSK3β-KO mice were generated by crossbreeding GSK3β-floxed mice and ePet1-Cre mice. These mice had normal growth and physiological characteristics, similar numbers of tryptophan hydroxylase-2 (TpH2)-expressing serotonin neurons, and the same brain serotonin content as in littermate wild type mice. However, the expression of GSK3β in snGSK3β-KO mice was diminished in TpH2-expressing serotonin neurons. Compared to littermate wild type mice, snGSK3β-KO mice had a reduced response to the 5-HT1B receptor agonist anpirtoline in the regulation of serotonergic neuron firing, cAMP production, and serotonin release, whereas these animals displayed a normal response to the 5-HT1A receptor agonist 8-OH- DPAT. The effect of anpirtoline on the horizontal, center, and vertical activities in the open field test was differentially affected by GSK3β depletion in serotonin neurons, wherein vertical activity, but not horizontal activity, was significantly altered in snGSK3β-KO mice. In addition, there was an enhanced anti-immobility response to anpirtoline in the tail suspension test in snGSK3β-KO mice. Therefore, results of this study demonstrated a serotonin neuron-targeting function of GSK3β by regulating 5-HT1B autoreceptors, which impacts serotonergic neuron firing, serotonin release, and serotonin-regulated behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abnormal dopamine (DA) signaling is often suggested as causative in schizophrenia. The other prominent hypothesis for this disorder, largely driven by epidemiological data, is that certain adverse events during the early stages of brain development increase an individual's risk of developing schizophrenia later in life. However, the clinical and preclinical literature consistently implicates behavioural, cognitive, and pharmacological abnormalities, implying that DA signaling is abnormal in the adult brain. How can we reconcile these two major hypotheses underlying much of the clinical and basic research into schizophrenia? In this study we have transiently knocked down tyrosine hydroxylase (TH, the rate limiting enzyme in DA synthesis) gene expression in the early stages of brain development in zebrafish using morpholinos. We show that by adulthood, TH and DA levels have returned to normal and basic DA- mediated behaviours, such as locomotion, are also normal. However, when they were exposed to a novel environment the levels of freezing and immediate positioning in deeper zones were significantly reduced in these adult fish. The neurochemistry underlying these behaviours is complex, and the exact mechanisms for these abnormal behaviours remains unknown. This study demonstrates that early transient alterations in DA ontogeny can produce persistent alterations in adult brain function and suggests that the zebrafish may be a promising model animal for future studies directed at clarifying the basic neurodevelopmental mechanisms behind complex psychiatric disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mechanisms underlying age-dependent changes of dendritic spines on striatal medium spiny neurons are poorly understood. Spinophilin is an F-actin- and protein phosphatase 1 (PP1)-binding protein that targets PP1 to multiple downstream effectors to modulate dendritic spine morphology and function. We found that calcium/calmodulindependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) directly and indirectly associates with N- and C-terminal domains of spinophilin, but Factin can displace CaMKII from the N-terminal domain. Spinophilin co-localizes PP1 with CaMKII on the F-actin cytoskeleton in heterologous cells, and spinophilin co-localizes with synaptic CaMKII in neuronal cultures. Thr286 autophosphorylation enhances the binding of CaMKII to spinophilin in vitro and in vivo. Although there is no change in total levels of Thr286 autophosphorylation, maturation from postnatal day 21 into adulthood robustly enhances the levels of CaMKII that coimmunoprecipitate with spinophilin from mouse striatal extracts. Moreover, N- and C-terminal domain fragments of spinophilin bind more CaMKII from adult vs. postnatal day 21 striatal lysates. Total levels of other proteins that interact with C-terminal domains of spinophilin decrease during maturation, perhaps reducing competition for CaMKII binding to the Cterminal domain. In contrast, total levels of a-internexin and binding of a-internexin to the spinophilin N-terminal domain increases with maturation, perhaps bridging an indirect interaction with CaMKII. Moreover, there is an increase in the levels of myosin Va, a-internexin, spinophilin, and PP1 in striatal CaMKII immune complexes isolated from adult and aged mice compared to those from postnatal day 21. These changes in spinophilin/CaMKII interactomes may contribute to changes in striatal dendritic spine density, morphology, and function during normal postnatal maturation and aging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mitochondrial shape is determined by fission and fusion reactions, perturbation of which can contribute to neuronal injury and disease. Mitochondrial fission is catalyzed by dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1), a large GTPase of the dynamin family that is highly expressed in neurons and regulated by various posttranslational modifications, including phosphorylation. We report here that reversible phosphorylation of Drp1 at a conserved Ser residue by an outer mitochondrial kinase (PKA/AKAP1) and phosphatase (PP2A/Bβ2) impacts dendrite and synapse development in cultured rat hippocampal neurons. PKA/AKAP1-mediated phosphorylation of Drp1 at Ser656 increased mitochondrial length and dendrite occupancy, enhancing dendritic outgrowth but paradoxically decreasing synapse number and density. Opposing PKA/AKAP1, PP2A/Bβ2-mediated dephosphorylation of Drp1 at Ser656 fragmented and depolarized mitochondria and depleted them from dendrites, stunting dendritic outgrowth but augmenting synapse formation. Raising and lowering intracellular calcium reproduced the effects of dephospho-Drp1 and phospho-Drp1on dendrite and synapse development, respectively, while boosting mitochondrial membrane potential with L-carnitine-fostered dendrite at the expense of synapse formation without altering mitochondrial size or distribution. Thus, outer mitochondrial PKA and PP2A regulate neuronal development by inhibiting and promoting mitochondrial division, respectively. We propose that the bioenergetic state of mitochondria, rather than their localization or shape per se, is the key effector of Drp1, altering calcium homeostasis to modulate neuronal morphology and connectivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phosphorylation-dependent modulation of the vanilloid receptor TRPV1 is one of the key mechanisms mediating the hyperalgesic effects of inflammatory mediators, such as prostaglandin E2 (PGE2 ). However, little is known about the molecular organization of the TRPV1 phosphorylation complex and specifically about scaffolding proteins that position the protein kinase A(PKA)holoenzymeproximaltoTRPV1for effective and selective regulation of the receptor. Here, we demonstrate the critical role of the A-kinase anchoring protein AKAP150 in PKA-dependent modulation of TRPV1 function in adult mouse dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. We found that AKAP150 is expressed in ~80% of TRPV1 -positive DRG neurons and is coimmunoprecipitated with the capsaicin receptor. In functional studies, PKA stimulation with forskolin markedly reduced desensitization of TRPV1. This effect was blocked by the PKA selective inhibitors KT5720 [(9S,10R,12R)-2,3,9,10,11,12-hexahydro-10 -hydroxy-9-methyl-1-oxo-9,12-epoxy-1H-diindolo[1,2,3-fg:3',2',1'-kl]pyrrolo[3, 4-i][1,6]benzodiazocine-10-carboxylicacid hexyl ester] and H89 (N-[2-( p-bromo-cinnamylamino)-ethyl]-5-isoquinoline-sulfon-amide 2HCl), as well as by the AKAP inhibitory peptide Ht31. Similarly, PGE2 decreased TRPV1 desensitization in a manner sensitive to the PKA inhibitor KT5720. Both the forskolin and PGE2 effects were strongly impaired in DRG neurons from knock-in mice that express a mutant AKAP150 lacking the PKA-binding domain (Δ36 mice). Protein kinase C-dependent sensitization of TRPV1 remained intact in Δ36 mice. The PGE2/PKA signaling defect in DRG neurons from Δ36 mice was rescued by overexpressing the full-length human ortholog of AKAP150 in these cells. In behavioral testing, PGE2-induced thermal hyperalgesia was significantly diminished in Δ36 mice. Together, these data suggest that PKA anchoring by AKAP150 is essential for the enhancement of TRPV1 function by activation of the PGE2/PKA signaling pathway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter enables ATP production to match energy demands during the cell cycle. Balancing Ca2+ pools in proliferating cells: Cell proliferation is an energetically demanding process. During the cell cycle, mitochondrial fusion and mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake increase, both of which correlate with increased ATP production. Koval et al. found that the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter (MCU) was required to balance Ca2+ concentrations in the cytosol and mitochondria. Without the MCU, the excess cytosolic Ca2+ resulted in mitochondrial fission mediated by Drp1, reduced ATP output, and decreased cellular proliferation. Thus, the MCU enables ATP production to match energy demands during the cell cycle. The role of the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter (MCU) in physiologic cell proliferation remains to be defined. Here, we demonstrated that the MCU was required to match mitochondrial function to metabolic demands during the cell cycle. During the G1-S transition (the cycle phase with the highest mitochondrial ATP output), mitochondrial fusion, oxygen consumption, and Ca2+ uptake increased in wild-type cells but not in cells lacking MCU. In proliferating wild-type control cells, the addition of the growth factors promoted the activation of the Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase II (CaMKII) and the phosphorylation of the mitochondrial fission factor Drp1 at Ser616. The lack of the MCU was associated with baseline activation of CaMKII, mitochondrial fragmentation due to increased Drp1 phosphorylation, and impaired mitochondrial respiration and glycolysis. The mitochondrial fission/fusion ratio and proliferation in MCU-deficient cells recovered after MCU restoration or inhibition of mitochondrial fragmentation or of CaMKII in the cytosol. Our data highlight a key function for the MCU in mitochondrial adaptation to the metabolic demands during cell cycle progression. Cytosolic CaMKII and the MCU participate in a regulatory circuit, whereby mitochondrial Ca2+ uptake affects cell proliferation through Drp1. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Intrinsically disordered regions (IDR) and short linear motifs (SLiMs) play pivotal roles in the intricate signaling networks governed by phosphatases and kinases. B56δ (encoded by PPP2R5D) is a regulatory subunit of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) with long IDRs that harbor a substrate-mimicking SLiM and multiple phosphorylation sites. De novo missense mutations in PPP2R5D cause intellectual disabilities (ID), macrocephaly, Parkinsonism, and a broad range of neurological symptoms. Our single-particle cryo-EM structures of the PP2A-B56δ holoenzyme reveal that the long, disordered arms at the B56δ termini fold against each other and the holoenzyme core. This architecture suppresses both the phosphatase active site and the substrate-binding protein groove, thereby stabilizing the enzyme in a closed latent form with dual autoinhibition. The resulting interface spans over 190 Å and harbors unfavorable contacts, activation phosphorylation sites, and nearly all residues with ID-associated mutations. Our studies suggest that this dynamic interface is coupled to an allosteric network responsive to phosphorylation and altered globally by mutations. Furthermore, we found that ID mutations increase the holoenzyme activity and perturb the phosphorylation rates, and the severe variants significantly increase the mitotic duration and error rates compared to the normal variant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Replying to F. Fieni et al. 513, http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature13626 (2014)In our Letter identifying mitochondrial CaMKII as a crucial component of a Ca2+-dependent process of heart disease, we used multiple methods to show that CaMKII modulates mitochondrial Ca2+ homeostasis, as outlined below. First, we carried out electrophysiology of the mitochondrial calcium uniporter (MCU) current in mitoplasts. In our report we did not claim to measure capacitance of the mitoplast separately from the total capacitance of the mitoplast and pipette. Although we concede that the approach of Fieni et al. is preferable, we found that even after removing any correction for capacitance, dialysis with constitutively active CaMKII monomers increased MCU current whereas dialysis with catalytically dead CaMKII monomers did not. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A-Kinase anchoring protein 1 (AKAP1) is a multifunctional mitochondrial scaffold protein that regulates mitochondrial dynamics, bioenergetics, and calcium homeostasis by anchoring several proteins, including protein kinase A, to the outer mitochondrial membrane. Glaucoma is a complex, multifactorial disease characterized by a slow and progressive degeneration of the optic nerve and retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), ultimately resulting in vision loss. Impairment of the mitochondrial network and function is linked to glaucomatous neurodegeneration. Loss of AKAP1 induces dynamin-related protein 1 dephosphorylation-mediated mitochondrial fragmentation and loss of RGCs. Elevated intraocular pressure triggers a significant reduction in AKAP1 protein expression in the glaucomatous retina. Amplification of AKAP1 expression protects RGCs from oxidative stress. Hence, modulation of AKAP1 could be considered a potential therapeutic target for neuroprotective intervention in glaucoma and other mitochondria-associated optic neuropathies. This review covers the current research on the role of AKAP1 in the maintenance of mitochondrial dynamics, bioenergetics, and mitophagy in RGCs and provides a scientific basis to identify and develop new therapeutic strategies that could protect RGCs and their axons in glaucoma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) holoenzymes target broad substrates by recognizing short motifs via regulatory subunits. PP2A methylesterase 1 (PME-1) is a cancer-promoting enzyme and undergoes methylesterase activation upon binding to the PP2A core enzyme. Here, we showed that PME-1 readily demethylates different families of PP2A holoenzymes and blocks substrate recognition in vitro. The high-resolution cryoelectron microscopy structure of a PP2A-B56 holoenzyme-PME-1 complex reveals that PME-1 disordered regions, including a substrate-mimicking motif, tether to the B56 regulatory subunit at remote sites. They occupy the holoenzyme substrate-binding groove and allow large structural shifts in both holoenzyme and PME-1 to enable multipartite contacts at structured cores to activate the methylesterase. B56 interface mutations selectively block PME-1 activity toward PP2A-B56 holoenzymes and affect the methylation of a fraction of total cellular PP2A. The B56 interface mutations allow us to uncover B56-specific PME-1 functions in p53 signaling. Our studies reveal multiple mechanisms of PME-1 in suppressing holoenzyme functions and versatile PME-1 activities derived from coupling substrate-mimicking motifs to dynamic structured cores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The neuron-specific Bβ2 regulatory subunit of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), a product of the spinocerebellar ataxia type 12 disease gene PPP2R2B, recruits heterotrimeric PP2A to the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM) through its N-terminal mitochondrial targeting sequence. OMM-localized PP2A/Bβ2 induces mitochondrial fragmentation, thereby increasing susceptibility to neuronal insults. Here, we report that PP2A/Bβ2 activates the mitochondrial fission enzyme dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) by dephosphorylating Ser656, a highly conserved inhibitory phosphorylation site targeted by the neuroprotective protein kinase A-A kinase anchoring protein 1 complex. We further show that translocation of PP2A/Bβ2 to mitochondria is regulated by phosphorylation of Bβ2 at three N-terminal serines. Phosphomimetic substitution of Ser20, Ser21, and Ser22 renders Bβ2 cytosolic, blocks Drp1 dephosphorylation and mitochondrial fragmentation, and abolishes the ability of Bβ2 overexpression to induce apoptosis in cultured hippocampal neurons. Alanine substitution of Ser20-Ser22 to prevent phosphorylation has the opposite effect, promoting association of Bβ2 with mitochondria, Drp1 dephosphorylation, mitochondrial fission, and neuronal death. OMM translocation of Bβ2 can be attenuated by mutation of residues in close proximity to the catalytic site, but only if Ser20-Ser22 are available for phosphorylation, suggesting that PP2A/Bβ2 autodephosphorylation is necessary for OMM association, probably by uncovering the net positive charge of the mitochondrial targeting sequence. These results reveal another layer of complexity in the regulation of the mitochondrial fission-fusion equilibrium and its physiological and pathophysiological consequences in the nervous system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the rate-limiting enzyme in catecholamine synthesis, is stimulated by N-terminal phosphorylation by several kinases and inhibited by protein serine/threonine phosphatase 2A (PP2A). PP2A is a family of heterotrimeric holoenzymes containing one of more than a dozen different regulatory subunits. In comparison with rat forebrain extracts, adrenal gland extracts exhibited TH hyperphosphorylation at Ser19, Ser31, and Ser40, as well as reduced phosphatase activity selectively toward phosphorylated TH. Because the B′ β regulatory subunit of PP2A is expressed in brain but not in adrenal glands, we tested the hypothesis that PP2A/B′ β is a specific TH phosphatase. In catecholamine-secreting PC12 cells, inducible expression of B′13 decreased both N-terminal Ser phosphorylation and in situ TH activity, whereas inducible silencing of endogenous B′ β had the opposite effect, Furthermore, PP2A/B′ β directly dephosphorylated TH in vitro. As to specificity, other PP2A regulatory subunits had negligible effects on TH activity and phosphorylation in situ and in vitro. Whereas B′ β was highly expressed in dopaminergic cell bodies in the substantia nigra, the PP2A regulatory subunit was excluded from TH-positive terminal fields in the striatum and failed to colocalize with presynaptic markers in general. Consistent with a model in which B′ β enrichment in neuronal cell bodies helps confine catecholamine synthesis to axon terminals, TH phosphorylation was higher in processes than in somata of dopaminergic neurons. In summary, we show that B′ β recruits PP2A to modulate TH activity in a tissue- and cell compartment-specific fashion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ca2+ influx through the NMDA receptor and subsequent activation of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) are crucial for learning and one of its physiological correlates, long-term potentiation (LTP). Ca2+/calmodulin promotes CaMKII binding to several postsynaptic proteins, including the NMDA receptor. These interactions strategically place CaMKII at locations where Ca2+ influx through the NMDA receptor is highest for further activation of CaMKII and for phosphorylation of nearby AMPA receptors and of other proteins that are important for LTP. Ca2+-dependent postsynaptic CaMKII clustering is of specific interest because LTP is synapse specific: only synapses that experience LTP-inducing high-frequency activity exhibit LTP. Ca2+-driven protein binding ensures that CaMKII accumulates only at those synapses undergoing LTP. This selectivity is economical and could contribute to the synapse specificity of LTP because downstream effects of CaMKII will occur mainly at synapses that accumulate CaMKII. In this article, we provide an overview of recent progress in postsynaptic CaMKII anchoring and discuss its implication in synaptic plasticity and the etiology and potential treatments of neurological diseases. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]