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This study tested the hypotheses that age-induced alteration in cortisol, ACTH, and glucose concentrations are due to differences in the response of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and that exercise training would attenuate these differences. Six old (22.0±0.7 yr; mean±SE) and 6 young (7.3±0.6 yr) unfit Standardbred mares ran 3 graded exercise tests (GXT): before (GXT1), after 8 wk of training (GXT2), and at study end at 15 wk (GXT3). Mares trained 3 d/wk at 60% maximum heart rate. Each mare underwent 5 endocrine stimulation tests pre- and posttraining: 1) control (CON), 2) adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTHtest), 3) combined dexamethasone suppression/ACTH (DEX/ACTH), 4) dexamethasone suppression (DEX), and 5) combined DEX/corticotropin releasing factor (DEX/CRF). For CON, there was no difference in plasma cortisol between age groups pretraining (P=0.19), but young mares had a 102% higher mean (P=0.02) plasma cortisol concentration than old mares posttraining. The pretraining ACTHtest showed young mares had a 72% higher (P=0.05) overall plasma cortisol concentration compared to old. There was no overall age difference in cortisol in the posttraining ACTHtest, but old mares still had lower cortisol concentrations at 30 min during the test, suggesting decreased adrenal response to ACTH stimulation. There was no difference in cortisol response between old and young mares in DEX, DEX/ACTH, or DEX/CRF tests. Young mares had higher (P=0.02) overall plasma cortisol concentration posttraining in response to DEX/ACTH, but old mares showed no change. In CON and DEX/CRF, there were no age differences in plasma ACTH concentration, pre- or posttraining. Pretraining, there was no age difference in glucose response to DEX, but posttraining old mares had a 4% (P=0.04) lower overall plasma glucose concentration compared to young. Posttraining, old mares had lower mean plasma glucose concentrations during DEX compared to pretraining (P=0.02), but there was no change pre- vs. posttraining in young mares (P=0.19). Old and young mares had lower plasma glucose concentrations posttraining during DEX/ACTH (P

The capacity to modify vocal syntax to changes in social context is an important component of vocal plasticity and complexity in adult vertebrates, especially in human speech. The ecological significance of this behaviour has been well established in some avian species but not in mammals where complex, multisyllabic vocalizations are rare. The Brazilian free-tailed bat, Tadarida brasiliensis, is a mammal that sings like a bird, producing hierarchically structured songs that vary in the order and number of phrases (i.e. syntax) from one rendition to the next while simultaneously following specific organizational rules. Here, we used playback experiments to examine the function of songs and tested whether song syntax is correlated with social context. Free-tailed bats responded rapidly and robustly to echolocation calls that mimicked a bat flying past the roost but did not respond to conspecific song playbacks. We compared songs that were directed at a passing bat with songs that were produced spontaneously and found that bats produced longer songs with different phrase content and order when singing spontaneously than when singing to bats approaching their roost. Thus, free-tailed bats quickly varied song composition to meet the specific demands of different social functions. These distinct singing behaviours are similar to those of some songbirds, suggesting that bats and birds have converged upon a similar set of production modes that may reflect common neural mechanisms and ecological factors.

Singing plays an important role in the social lives of several disparate bat species, but just how significant the behavior may be among bats generally is unknown. Recent discoveries suggest singing by bats might be surprisingly more diverse and widespread than anticipated, but if true then two questions must be addressed: firstly why has singing been so rarely documented among bats, and secondly do bats sing for the same reasons as songbirds? We address the first question by reviewing how sampling bias and technical constraints may have produced a myopic view of bat social communication. To address the second question, we review evidence from 50 years of batsong literature supporting the supposition that bat singing is linked to the same constellation of ecological variables that favored birdsong, including territoriality, polygyny, metabolic constraints, migratory behaviors and especially powered flight. We propose that bats sing like birds because they fly like birds; flight is energetically expensive and singing reduces time spent flying. Factoring in the singular importance of acoustic communication for echolocating bats, it seems likely that singing may prove to be relatively common among certain groups of bats once it becomes clear when and where to look for it.

Summary Reasons for performing study: Many nutraceuticals are used as equine supplements without their efficacy having been scientifically tested. Black tea, cranberries, orange peel and ginger are a few of those nutraceuticals that warrant further study. Objective: To test the effects of single doses of black tea, cranberry, orange peel and ginger extract on markers of oxidative stress and antioxidant status following exercise in horses. Methods: In Study 1, 9 mature, healthy but unfit Standardbred mares were administered 2 l of a control (water), orange peel extract (30 g extract) or decaffeinated black tea extract (28 g extract). In Study 2 the same mares were administered 2 l of a control (water), cranberry extract (30 g extract) or ginger extract (30 g extract). In each study, mares were given the extracts via nasogastric tube 1 h before performing a graded exercise test (GXT), in a randomised crossover design with at least 7 days between GXTs. Blood samples were collected at rest, at fatigue, and 1 and 24 h post exercise and analysed for lipid hydroperoxides (LPO), total glutathione (GSH-T), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), α-tocopherol (TOC), β-carotene (BC) and retinol. Data were statistically analysed using a repeated measures ANOVA. Results: In Study 1 there was no effect of treatment for LPO, GSH-T, GPx, TOC or BC. Retinol was higher for both tea (P = 0.0006) and water (P = 0.004) than for orange peel. In Study 2 there was no treatment effect for LPO, GPx, GSH-T, RET, BC or TOC. Conclusions: The results show that a single dose of various nutraceuticals in exercising horses do not produce an effect on either oxidative stress or antioxidant status and further investigation is needed as to whether long-term supplementation would enhance these effects.

The diversity of song repertoires and functions of singing in mammals have been little investigated. In bats, singing in the roost to court and defend mates has been studied; however the concept of territorial behaviors and the role of singing outside of the roost are poorly understood. The heart-nosed bat, Cardioderma cor, roosts in groups in the hollows of baobab trees, but disperses to exclusive areas whereby they move about foraging and singing. We investigated singing in this species by mist-netting, pit-tagging, and tracking 12 singing individuals during which we recorded songs and collected movement and singing behavioral data. Male C. cor individuals returned to same foraging area nightly, which are often over 100 m across, and favored perches whereby they sang back and forth with neighbors. Compared to high frequency echolocation, low-frequency, repetitive song syllables are likely adapted for song transmission across the cluttered bush habitat. Songs varied within and across individuals acoustic...

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this longitudinal study was to determine whether there were differences in child abuse potential among mothers who were nonusers, drug users who accepted treatment, and drug users who rejected offers of treatment, over the first 2 years of their children's lives. METHOD: Participants were mothers of 140 infants, classified into Nonuser (n = 48), Treatment (n = 72), or Refuser (n = 20) groups. The Child Abuse Potential (CAP) Inventory Milner, J. S. 1980. The Child Abuse Potential Inventory: Manual. Webster, NC: Psytec Corporation was administered when infants were 4, 9, 12, 18, and 24 months. RESULTS: Results of mixed-model analyses of variances showed no group differences on CAP Inventory abuse scale scores. There were significant group differences in lie scale scores on the CAP Inventory, such that lie scale scores for the Nonuser group were significantly higher than lie scale scores for the Treatment group. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, results support the position that low-income women with many risk factors in their lives are at high risk for potential child abuse, but that their drug use status and drug treatment status does not differentiate them from their nonuser peers from a similar social and demographic background. Language: en

The present study examined the effect of acute exercise and intensive exercise training on the oxidative stress, antioxidant status, and muscle metabolism of yearlings and mature mares. Objective one was to look at the effect of repeated biopsies on muscle inflammation and oxidative stress. The pattern of biopsies does impact oxidative stress occurrence, with an alternating corner pattern resulting in less oxidative stress than biopsies taken in a row. Objective two was to look at levels of oxidative stress and antioxidants in the blood and skeletal muscle of horses after an acute bout of exercise. It was found that some markers were affected by acute exercise, but overall the test was not sufficient to induce severe oxidative stress, thus the intensity of acute exercise does impacts the level of oxidative stress endured by the horse. Objective three was to compare the effects of exercise training on oxidative stress and antioxidant status between yearlings and mares. It was found that training did significantly improve antioxidant status and reduce oxidative stress in the trained mares, while the trained yearlings did not have as significant changes in either regard. Objective four was to compare the effects of acute exercise before and after exercise training on oxidative stress, antioxidants, cortisol, and creatine kinase in two yearlings and mares. When challenged to acute exercise before training the mares had significantly higher levels of oxidative stress and cortisol and lower antioxidant status as compared to the yearlings. After exercise training, trained mature mares had lower levels of oxidative stress compared to prior training, and when challenged to acute exercise had lower oxidative stress and cortisol. The yearlings had few significant changes in oxidative stress after training and in response to acute exercise. In conclusion, young, maturing horses had lower levels of oxidative stress and cortisol, and higher levels of antioxidants, as compared to mature mares. Training can help reduce levels of oxidative stress in mature mares, while in young horses training is not as influential in reducing oxidative stress, suggesting that their young age is the most important defense against exercise-induced oxidative stress.

We review the literature on children whose mothers are incarcerated in jails or prisons. These children typically experience a great many risk factors besides their mothers' incarceration, including poverty, drug and alcohol problems in their families, community violence, and multiple changes in caregivers. Children's lives are greatly disrupted when mothers are arrested, and most children show emotional and behavioral problems. The impact this has depends on the age of the child, the alternate caregiving arrangements, and the course of the mother's incarceration. Children of incarcerated mothers experience internalizing (fear, withdrawal, depression, emotional disturbance) and externalizing (anger, fighting, stealing, substance abuse) problems, as well as heightened rates of school failure and eventual criminal activity and incarceration. Research in this area is scarce and often of poor quality. A research agenda which is guided by a transactional, ecological, and developmental model, and which examines children's well-being over the course of the mothers' incarceration is suggested.

This study tested the hypotheses that age-induced alteration in cortisol, ACTH, and glucose concentrations are due to differences in the response of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and that exercise training would attenuate these differences. Six old (22.0±0.7 yr; mean±SE) and 6 young (7.3±0.6 yr) unfit Standardbred mares ran 3 graded exercise tests (GXT): before (GXT1), after 8 wk of training (GXT2), and at study end at 15 wk (GXT3). Mares trained 3 d/wk at 60% maximum heart rate. Each mare underwent 5 endocrine stimulation tests pre- and posttraining: 1) control (CON), 2) adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTHtest), 3) combined dexamethasone suppression/ACTH (DEX/ACTH), 4) dexamethasone suppression (DEX), and 5) combined DEX/corticotropin releasing factor (DEX/CRF). For CON, there was no difference in plasma cortisol between age groups pretraining (P=0.19), but young mares had a 102% higher mean (P=0.02) plasma cortisol concentration than old mares posttraining. The pretraining ACTHtest showed young mares had a 72% higher (P=0.05) overall plasma cortisol concentration compared to old. There was no overall age difference in cortisol in the posttraining ACTHtest, but old mares still had lower cortisol concentrations at 30 min during the test, suggesting decreased adrenal response to ACTH stimulation. There was no difference in cortisol response between old and young mares in DEX, DEX/ACTH, or DEX/CRF tests. Young mares had higher (P=0.02) overall plasma cortisol concentration posttraining in response to DEX/ACTH, but old mares showed no change. In CON and DEX/CRF, there were no age differences in plasma ACTH concentration, pre- or posttraining. Pretraining, there was no age difference in glucose response to DEX, but posttraining old mares had a 4% (P=0.04) lower overall plasma glucose concentration compared to young. Posttraining, old mares had lower mean plasma glucose concentrations during DEX compared to pretraining (P=0.02), but there was no change pre- vs. posttraining in young mares (P=0.19). Old and young mares had lower plasma glucose concentrations posttraining during DEX/ACTH (P0.001 and P=0.05, respectively) and DEX/CRF (P0.001 and P=0.003, respectively) compared to pretraining. Both the pituitary and adrenal glands experience a decline in function with age although the exact mechanisms behind such changes remain unknown. Exercise training facilitates the counteraction of these deficits.

Many nutraceuticals are used as equine supplements without their efficacy having been scientifically tested. Black tea, cranberries, orange peel and ginger are a few of those nutraceuticals that warrant further study.To test the effects of single doses of black tea, cranberry, orange peel and ginger extract on markers of oxidative stress and antioxidant status following exercise in horses.In Study 1, 9 mature, healthy but unfit Standardbred mares were administered 2 l of a control (water), orange peel extract (30 g extract) or decaffeinated black tea extract (28 g extract). In Study 2 the same mares were administered 2 l of a control (water), cranberry extract (30 g extract) or ginger extract (30 g extract). In each study, mares were given the extracts via nasogastric tube 1 h before performing a graded exercise test (GXT), in a randomised crossover design with at least 7 days between GXTs. Blood samples were collected at rest, at fatigue, and 1 and 24 h post exercise and analysed for lipid hydroperoxides (LPO), total glutathione (GSH-T), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), α-tocopherol (TOC), β-carotene (BC) and retinol. Data were statistically analysed using a repeated measures ANOVA.In Study 1 there was no effect of treatment for LPO, GSH-T, GPx, TOC or BC. Retinol was higher for both tea (P = 0.0006) and water (P = 0.004) than for orange peel. In Study 2 there was no treatment effect for LPO, GPx, GSH-T, RET, BC or TOC.The results show that a single dose of various nutraceuticals in exercising horses do not produce an effect on either oxidative stress or antioxidant status and further investigation is needed as to whether long-term supplementation would enhance these effects.

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The diversity of song repertoires and functions of singing in mammals are not well known. In bats, singing in the roost to court and defend mates has been studied; however, the concept of territorial behaviors and the role of singing outside of the roost is poorly understood. The heart-nosed bat, Cardioderma cor, roosts in mixed-sex and age groups in the hollows of baobab trees, but disperses to exclusive areas whereupon they move about foraging and singing. We investigated singing in this species by mist-netting, pit-tagging, and tracking 12 singing individuals during which we recorded songs and collected singing and movement behavioral data. We conducted song playbacks to further test song function. Male C. cor individuals return to same foraging area nightly, which are often over 100 m across, and favor perches where they sing back and forth with neighbors. Low-frequency, repetitive syllables are likely adapted for song transmission across the cluttered bush habitat. Songs vary within and across individuals both spectrally and temporally. Song playbacks elicited aggressive responses, confirming that these bats use song as part of their territorial defense strategy, similar to the way song is used by many songbirds.

The goal of this thesis was to help Farmers Cooperative Equity Company (FCE) remain a firm, stable cooperative while increasing wealth of their patron owners. This thesis evaluated alternative equity redemption strategies to help FCE decide what decisions need to be made for proper use of equity for financing assets and increasing patronage returns. To develop an understanding of FCE and their current financial structures, we looked at the history of FCE and cooperatives in general. Then we gave a brief background of financial performance measures that were used to evaluate the profitability, solvency, liquidity, and efficiency of FCE. A cooperative performance profile was then run on FCE, by using a financial analysis program called PERFORM, to compare it to other agriculture cooperatives. The results for FCE were very strong in that they were performing at or above the 50th percentile range for many of the measures examined. FCE appears to be a very profitable, liquid, solvent, and efficient cooperative. We then used the results provided by the financial analysis program called PERFORM to make financial projections for the future to evaluate alternative equity redemption strategies for FCE. A computer program called FINPLAN was used to make the financial projections and evaluate the alternative equity redemption strategies. Five different strategies were evaluated and compared to the status quo, "strategy S0," business as usual. The results showed that if the projections made for the future are correct, FCE would be able to return larger redemptions to patron owners by implementing an alternative equity redemption strategy that adheres to strict balance sheet management. Balance sheet management requires a cooperative to meet predetermined solvency and liquidity goals and then distributes the residual equity over and above that needed to finance assets, in combination with debt, as the equity redemption budget for that year. FCE could return larger redemptions while financing their operations through the use of patron equity and then return excess equity to patrons based upon cooperative usage. FCE's general manager and board of directors have been provided with this thesis and the full project report. This thesis and project provide FCE with valuable information for them to make critical decisions on cooperative finance, including income distribution and equity management decisions.

s / Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 33 (2013) 321-399 324 molasses to encourage consumption. Analysis of urine for ergot alkaloids confirmed levels high enough to elicit toxicosis. Horses were exercised 5 d/wk and subjected to four SET (1/horse/wk), in the third and fourth wk of each period. Each SET consisted of a 10 min warm up in an indoor arena followed byan outdoor trail ride covering 4,875m at the jog (2.1 m/s) and extended trot (3.9 m/s) that required 30-31 min to complete. Variables measured before, during and after the SET included rectal temperature (RT), heart rate (HR), respiration rate (RR), packed cell volume (PCV), blood lactate (BL), percent weight carried (%C), sweat production (SP) and skin temperature (ST) at the poll (STP), exterior forearm (STF) and inner gaskin (STG). One and five min post exercise measurements were taken outdoors with remainingmeasurements recorded indoors at 10, 20, 30, 60, 90,120 min. A composite of ambient air temperature, humidity and solar radiation (WBGT), was recorded during the SET and recovery. A horse effect (p

We investigated children's understanding of irony and sensitivity to irony's meanness and humor. In Study 1, 89 participants (5-6-year-olds, 8-9-year-olds, adults) heard ironic and literal criticisms, and literal compliments. Comprehension of irony emerged between 5 and 6 years of age. Ratings of humor increased with age; ratings of meanness did not (showing that all ages perceived irony as more muted than literal criticism). In Study 2, results from 135 participants (6-7-year-olds, 8-9-year-olds, and adults) replicated these findings and revealed the role of form and intonation. Thus, comprehension of irony emerges between 5 and 6 years of age, and sensitivity to the muting function develops prior to sensitivity to the humor function.

Women entrepreneurship is a growing trend in both developed and developing countries. It is critical that the motivations and results of women starting ventures within a developing country are understood in order to sustain this trend. This study identifies the factors that enable women to become entrepreneurs in the Ukraine. The findings are segmented into the entrepreneurs' personal characteristics, the reasons for their ventures, the characteristics of their business and operations, and problems for women in starting or maintaining their venture.

Fresh frozen sections of rat submandibular gland were processed for leucine aminopeptidase localization with L-lencyl-β-naphthylamide hydrochloride and L-leucyl-β-naphthylamide. When the first substrate was utilized stained sections were dehydrated in an ethyl alcohol series, cleared in xylene, and mounted in water-insoluble (resinous) media. Sections were also removed at each stage of dehydration and cleared and mounted with glychrogel. When the second substrate was used, tissues were partially decolorized in 40% ethyl alcohol and mounted directly in glychrogel. Comparison of all sections mounted in glychrogel indicated that there was no variation in cellular localization, regardless of substrate used or degree of dehydration. Nuclei were unstained. After mounting in balsam or synthetic resin the nuclei exhibited an intense stain and the parenchymal reaction was stronger, but diffuse. Progressive staining of the nuclei was observed, microscopically, immediately after applying the resinous mounting medium...

1. Histochemical observations of the aerobic metabolism of the accessory boring organ (ABO) of Urosalpinx showed that cytochrome oxidase, succinate dehydrogenase and lactate dehydrogenase activities are localized in the secretory cells of the distal secretory disk.2. Correlated biochemical assays of cytochrome oxidase activity of whole homogenates of the ABO prepared from active snails gave specific activities which ranged between 0.190 to 2.10.3. There were no differences in cytochrome oxidase specific activities using ABO whole homogenates from resting or drilling snails. However, the specific activities of mitochondrial-rich particulate fractions isolated from whole homogenates by high speed centrifugation showed that oxidase activities of drilling specimens were 1.040 as opposed to 0.639 for samples from resting specimens.4. Snails did not bore shells of the oyster Crassostrea virginica when maintained in a N2 atmosphere, and ceased boring begun prior to transfer to anaerobic conditions.5. These data ...

Carbonic anhydrase (CA), the enzyme which catalyzes the reaction CO2+H2O⇌H2CO3, was found in both active and resting accessory boring organs (ABO) of Urosalpinx , using a modification of the Waldeyer and Hausler (1959) technique in which the tissue section is floated on the substrate solution. The intense reactivity of this gland exceeded the activity of other pedal tissues of this muricid gastropod. The ventral pedal gland of the female also exhibited strong activity, but theconcentration in this tissue was not as intense as that observed in the ABO. No discernible differences between the microvilli of resting and boring ABOs were noted after fixation in acetone, formalin, or glutaraldehyde. However, notable nuances in reactivity of the pedal structures occurred when the comparative effect of fixatives was evaluated. All variations of the immersion technique, as opposed to flotation procedures, exhibited a strong stain only in the microvilli of active ABOs, and little or no activity in resting ABOs. This difference between active and resting ABOs (immersion technique only) appears to be due to the binding (chelation) of calcium with subsequent replacement of cobalt (probably as a carbonate complex) in the substrate. The markedly greater CA activity in the ABO, relative to other secretory tissues inthe snail, suggests a vital role for this enzyme in the process of penetrating shell. Thelow pH of the secretion from the active ABO during boring indicates that at least one phase of the boring process is a chemical reaction associated with production of acid.

A method for the production of stable mouse-human cell hybrids containing a single human chromosome is described. As a first step in this method, a cloned selectable marker, the E. coli xanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (Ecogpt) gene, was transferred to human cells to generate cell lines each carrying Ecogpt integrated into a different site. Human chromosomes marked with Ecogpt were transferred further into mouse cells by microcell fusion. Monochromosomal hybrids, in which the human chromosome is maintained by selection, have been produced for chromosomes 2, 5, 16, and a rearranged chromosome involving a translocation between chromosomes 1 and 2. In addition to these monochromosomal hybrids, we have also obtained monochromosomal hybrids for human chromosomes 6, 12, and 17 by selection for the loss of marked chromosome from the microcell hybrids each containing two human chromosomes. Although the human chromosome present in these hybrids cannot be maintained by selection, 80–90% of cells retained the transferred chromosome on continuous growth for 15 days. Monochromosomal hybrids would provide biological materials to construct genetic maps of human chromosomes. In addition, chromosomes marked with dominant selectable markers can be transferred further to any cell line of interest in inter- or intra-species combination.

On the social scale, the blind mole rat (BMR;Spalax ehrenbergi) is an extreme. It is exceedingly solitary, territorial, and aggressive. BMRs reside underground, in self-excavated tunnels that they rarely leave. They possess specialized sensory systems for social communication and navigation, which allow them to cope with the harsh environmental conditions underground. This review aims to present the blind mole rat as an ideal, novel neuroethological model for studying aggressive and solitary behaviors. We discuss the BMR’s unique behavioral phenotype, particularly in the context of ‘anti-social’ behaviors, and review the available literature regarding its specialized sensory adaptations to the social and physical habitat. To date, the neurobiology of the blind mole rat remains mostly unknown and holds a promising avenue for scientific discovery. Unraveling the neural basis of the BMR’s behavior, in comparison to that of social rodents, can shed important light on the underlying mechanisms of psychiatric disorders in humans, in which similar behaviors are displayed.