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Objectives: PCA3 performance as a single second line biomarker is compared to the European Randomised Study of Screening for Prostate Cancer risk calculator model 3 (ERSPC RC-3) in an opportunistic screening in prostate cancer (PCa). Material and methods: 5,199 men, aged 40-75y, underwent prostate-specific antigen (PSA) screening and digital rectal examination (DRE). Men with a normal DRE and PSA >= 3 ng/ml had a PCA3 test done. All men with PCA3 >= 35 underwent an initial biopsy (IBx) 12 cores. Men with PCA3 < 35 were randomized 1:1 to either IBx or observation. We compared them to those obtained with ERSPC RC-3. Results: PCA3 test was performed on 838 men (16.1%). In PCA3(+) and PCA3(-) groups, global PCa detection rates were 40.9% and 14.7% with a median follow-up (FU) of 21.7 months (P= 3 ng/ml and DRE is normal, IBx could be avoided in 12.5% less than if ERSPC RC-3 is used and would reduce the false negative cases by 36.2%. At a FU of 21.7 months, this dual protocol would miss 9.1% of clinically significant PCa, so strict FU is mandatory with established biopsy criteria based on PSA and DRE in cases with PCA3 < 35. (C) 2016 AEU. Published by Elsevier Espana, S.L.U. All rights reserved.

The anterior thalamic nuclei form part of a network for episodic memory in humans. The importance of these nuclei for recognition and recency judgments remains, however, unclear. Rats with anterior thalamic nuclei lesions and their controls were tested on object recognition, along with two types of recency judgment. The spontaneous discrimination of a novel object or a novel odor from a familiar counterpart (recognition memory) was not affected by anterior thalamic lesions when tested after retention delays of 1 and 60 min. To measure recency memory, rats were shown two familiar objects, one of which had been explored more recently. In one condition, rats were presented with two lists (List A, List B) of objects separated by a delay, thereby creating two distinct blocks of stimuli. After an additional delay, rats were presented with pairs of objects, one from List A and one from List B (between-block recency). No lesion-induced deficit was apparent for recency discriminations between objects from different lists, despite using three different levels of task difficulty. In contrast, rats with anterior thalamic lesions were significantly impaired when presented with a continuous list of objects and then tested on their ability to distinguish between those items early and late in the same list (within-block recency). The contrasting effects on recognition and recency support the notion that interlinked hippocampal–anterior thalamic interconnections support aspects of both spatial and nonspatial learning, although the role of the anterior thalamic nuclei may be restricted to a subclass of recency judgments (within-block).

Background In obese patients undergoing sleeve gastrectomy, the blood and fatty-tissue concentrations of cefazolin required for adequate antibiotic prophylaxis are uncertain. Methods This was a single centre prospective study in obese (Group A: 40≤ BMI ≤50 kg m−2) and severely obese (Group B: 50 Results One hundred and sixteen patients were included: 79 in Group A and 37 in Group B. At the beginning of the surgery, cefazolin concentration in subcutaneous fatty tissue was 12.2 (5.4) μg g−1 in Group A and 12 (6.1) μg g−1 in Group B (P=0.7). At the end, cefazolin concentrations in subcutaneous fatty tissue were 9.0 (4.9) and 7.8 (4.2) μg g−1 in Groups A and B, respectively (P=0.2). The plasma concentration of free cefazolin during surgery was higher in Group A than in Group B (P Conclusions After a 4 g dose, the concentrations of cefazolin in fatty tissue were above the 4 μg g−1 tissue concentration target, providing adequate antibiotic tissue concentrations during bariatric surgery. As cefazolin concentration in fatty tissue is a surrogate endpoint, the results should be considered in conjunction with the results on free cefazolin concentrations in subcutaneous tissue. Clinical trial registration NCT01537380.

The Mesozoic marked a time of experimentation in the tooth morphology of early mammals. One particular experiment involved the movement of three points, or cusps, on the surface of a molar tooth from a line into a triangle. This transition is exemplified by two extinct insectivorous mammals, Morganucodon (cusps in a line) and Kuehneotherium (cusps in a triangle). Here we test whether this difference in cusp arrangement, alongside cusp heights and angles between cusps, is associated with differences in the ability of the teeth to fracture proxy-insect prey. We gathered measurements from molar teeth of both species and used them to create physical models. We then measured the force, time and energy at fracture and peak force, and the amount of damage inflicted by the models on hard and soft gels encased in a tough film that mimicked the material properties of insects. The Morganucodon model required less force and energy to fracture hard gels and reach peak force compared with Kuehneotherium . Kuehneotherium required a similar time, force and energy to fracture soft gels but reduced the time, force and energy to reach peak force. More importantly, Kuehneotherium also inflicted more damage to both the hard and the soft gels. These results suggest that changes in dental morphology in some early mammals was driven primarily by selection for maximizing damage, and secondarily for maximizing biomechanical efficiency for a given food material property.

Mydriatic eye drops are indicated for ophthalmologic exams (fundus and cycloplegic effect for refraction diagnosis). Their use must be optimal to avoid adverse reactions. This is even more important in pediatrics, because few clinical studies were conducted in this population during drug development. We reviewed the use of mydriatic eye drops, gathering information from the Summary of Product Characteristics (SPC) from the Theriaque

The morphology and biomechanics of the vertebrate skull reflect the physical properties of diet and behaviors used in food acquisition and processing. We use phyllostomid bats, the most diverse mammalian dietary radiation, to investigate if and how changes in dietary hardness and loading behaviors during feeding shaped the evolution of skull morphology and biomechanics. When selective regimes of food hardness are modeled, we found that species consuming harder foods have evolved skull shapes that allow for more efficient bite force production. These species have shorter skulls and a greater reliance on the temporalis muscle, both of which contribute to a higher mechanical advantage at an intermediate gape angle. The evolution of cranial morphology and biomechanics also appears to be related to loading behaviors. Evolutionary changes in skull shape and the relative role of the temporalis and masseter in generating bite force are correlated with changes in the use of torsional and bending loading behaviors. Functional equivalence appears to have evolved independently among three lineages of species that feed on liquids and are not obviously morphologically similar. These trends in cranial morphology and biomechanics provide insights into behavioral and ecological factors shaping the skull of a trophically diverse clade of mammals.

Objectives DD3PCA3 (PCA3) gene expression is prostate cancer-specific. Routine use of this biomarker has resulted in a 35–67% reduction in the number of required biopsies. The aim of this study is to evaluate our outcomes in its routine use and to establish in which group of patients this is the most efficient, depending on the number of previous PCA3 biopsies. Material and methods A total of 474 consecutive patients who had previously undergone a biopsy (group A, n = 337) or not (group B, n = 134) for whom a PCA3 was requested were analyzed. We subdivided group A into A1 (a previous biopsy, n = 182) and A2 (

680..691 Seahorses and pipefishes are extremely fast suction feeders, and the fast strikes probably result in large and rapid pressure drops in the buccal cavity. These rapid drops in pressure imply heavy mechanical loading on the cranium; hence, the feeding apparatus is thought to experience high levels of stress. We used finite element analysis (FEA) to investigate where stress accumulates under strong suction pressure, and whether there is a difference in craniofacial stress distribution between long- and short-snouted species. The expectation was that high stress levels would occur at the articulations and in the cartilaginous regions of the cranium, and that, given the same pressure, the skulls of long-snouted species would exhibit lower stress levels than the skulls of short-snouted species, as an evolutionary increase in snout length might have made these species structurally better adapted to deal with high suction pressures. The results partially support the first hypothesis: except for Dunckerocampus dactyliophorus, all models show peak stress concentrations at the articulations and cartilaginous regions. However, no simple relationship between snout length and the magnitudes of stress predicted by the FEA was found. In an attempt to explain this lack of a relationship, the methodology was evaluated by assessing the effect of hyoid position and model construction on the stress distribution. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 104, 680‐691.

This paper focuses on a study of the principal operation aspects of standard ICRF heating antennas in the ion cyclotron wall conditioning (ICWC) mode: (i) ability of the antenna to ignite the cleaning discharge safely and reliably in different gases including those most likely to be used in ITER – He, H 2 , D 2 and their mixtures, (ii) the antenna capacity to couple a large fraction of the RF generator power (>50%) to low density (∼10 16 –10 18 m −3 ) plasmas and (iii) the RF power absorption schemes aimed at improved RF plasma homogeneity and enhanced conditioning effect. The ICWC discharge optimization in terms of RF plasma wave excitation/absorption resulted in successful simulation of the conditioning scenarios for ITER operation at full field (JET) and half-field (TEXTOR, TORE SUPRA, ASDEX Upgrade).

Several finite element models of a primate cranium were used to investigate the biomechanical effects of the tooth sockets and the material behavior of the periodontal ligament (PDL) on stress and strain patterns associated with feeding. For examining the effect of tooth sockets, the unloaded sockets were modeled as devoid of teeth and PDL, filled with teeth and PDLs, or simply filled with cortical bone. The third premolar on the left side of the cranium was loaded and the PDL was treated as an isotropic, linear elastic material using published values for Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio. The remaining models, along with one of the socket models, were used to determine the effect of the PDL's material behavior on stress and strain distributions under static premolar biting and dynamic tooth loading conditions. Two models (one static and the other dynamic) treated the PDL as cortical bone. The other two models treated it as a ligament with isotropic, linear elastic material properties. Two models treated the PDL as a ligament with hyperelastic properties, and the other two as a ligament with viscoelastic properties. Both behaviors were defined using published stress-strain data obtained from in vitro experiments on porcine ligament specimens. Von Mises stress and strain contour plots indicate that the effects of the sockets and PDL material behavior are local. Results from this study suggest that modeling the sockets and the PDL in finite element analyses of skulls is project dependent and can be ignored if values of stress and strain within the alveolar region are not required.

Both clinical investigations and studies with animals reveal nuclei within the diencephalon that are vital for recognition memory (the judgment of prior occurrence). This review seeks to identify these nuclei and to consider why they might be important for recognition memory. Despite the lack of clinical cases with circumscribed pathology within the diencephalon and apparent species differences, convergent evidence from a variety of sources implicates a subgroup of medial diencephalic nuclei. It is supposed that the key functional interactions of this subgroup of diencephalic nuclei are with the medial temporal lobe, the prefrontal cortex, and with cingulate regions. In addition, some of the clinical evidence most readily supports dual-process models of recognition, which assume two independent cognitive processes (recollective-based and familiarity-based) that combine to direct recognition judgments. From this array of information a “multi-effect multi-nuclei” model is proposed, in which the mammillary bodies and the anterior thalamic nuclei are of preeminent importance for recollective-based recognition. The medial dorsal thalamic nucleus is thought to contribute to familiarity-based recognition, but this nucleus, along with various midline and intralaminar thalamic nuclei, is also assumed to have broader, indirect effects upon both recollective-based and familiarity-based recognition.

The fossil ‘monkey lemur’ Hadropithecus stenognathus has long excited palaeontologists because its skull bears an astonishing resemblance to those of robust australopiths, an enigmatic side branch of the human family tree. Multiple lines of evidence point to the likelihood that these australopiths ate at least some ‘hard’, stress-limited food items, but conflicting data from H. stenognathus pose a conundrum. While its hominin-like craniofacial architecture is suggestive of an ability to generate high bite forces, details of its tooth structure suggest that it was not well equipped to withstand the forces imposed by cracking hard objects. Here, we use three-dimensional digital reconstructions and finite-element analysis to test the hard-object processing hypothesis. We show that Archaeolemur sp. cf. A. edwardsi , a longer-faced close relative of H. stenognathus that lacked hominin convergences, was probably capable of breaking apart large, stress-limited food items, while Hadropithecus was better suited to processing small, displacement-limited (tougher but more compliant) foods. Our suggestion that H. stenognathus was not a hard-object feeder has bearing on the interpretation of hominin cranial architecture; the features shared by H. stenognathus and robust australopiths do not necessarily reflect adaptations for hard-object processing.

Summary 1. Mammalian dental morphology and function are strongly linked to diet. Within mammals, phyllostomid bats are the most diverse family in terms of dietary ecology and thus represent a unique opportunity in which to investigate relationships between diet, tooth structure, feeding performance and behaviour. 2. Previous studies have focused on how specific aspects of dental morphology relate to diet. Here we use a comprehensive approach to describe 3D dental topography through a measure called dental complexity. Using phyllostomids as a model system, we investigate the functional significance of molar complexity with respect to prey breakdown of insect-eating species. We generated complexity data from 3D laser scans of molars from 17 species. We quantified feeding performance (ability to break down insects) and behaviour (number of chews) by conducting feeding experiments on 11 species using native prey. 3. Frugivores were found to have the highest molar complexity, which is related to biting into and crushing fruit pulp. Lower complexity of insectivore and omnivore molars can be related to the presence of crests specialized for shearing insect exoskeleton. Increases in the complexity of these shearing teeth translated into higher performance in prey breakdown (smaller exoskeleton particles), but chewing behaviour also played an important functional role. 4. Our results highlight the importance of morphology and behaviour in determining feeding performance, which potentially contributes to resource partitioning within this diverse group of mammals.

Reliance on plant exudates is a relatively rare dietary specialization among mammals. One well-studied example of closely related exudate feeders is the New World marmosets and tamarins. Whereas marmosets actively gouge tree bark with their incisors to stimulate the flow of sap, tamarins are opportunistic exudate feeders that do not gouge bark. Several studies of the dentaries and jaw adductors indicate that marmosets exhibit specializations for increased gape at the expense of bite force. Few studies, however, have looked to the cranium of marmosets for evidence of functional specializations. Using 3D finite element models of the marmoset Callithrix jacchus and the tamarin Saguinus fuscicollis, we investigated the performance of the cranium under loading regimes that mimicked unilateral molar biting and bark-gouging. We investigated three measures of performance: the efficiency with which muscle force is transferred to bite force, the extent to which the models are stressed (a predictor of failure), and the work expended by muscles as they deform the skull (total strain energy). We found that during molar biting the two models exhibited similar levels of performance, though the Saguinus model had slightly higher mechanical efficiency, a slightly lower state of stress, and expended more energy on deformation. In contrast, under the bark-gouging load, Callithrix exhibited much higher mechanical efficiency than Saguinas, but did so at the expense of more work and higher levels of von Mises stress. This analysis illustrates that differences in the shapes of the skulls of Callithrix and Saguinus confer differences in performance. Whether these aspects of performance are targets of selection awaits broader comparative analyses.

In addition to feeding, many vertebrates use their skulls for other functions that are highly relevant to fitness. One such function is roost excavation by the bat Lophostoma silvicolum. Males of this species use their canines to create cavities inside active termite nests, which are significantly harder than the prey they eat. Here we investigate whether the skull of L. silvicolum is specialized for roost excavation relative to the ecologically similar species Tonatia saurophila and Micronycteris hirsuta, which do not excavate roosts. We conducted a finite element analysis that simulated roost excavating and feeding behaviours. These analyses were informed by our observations of feeding and roost-excavating behaviours, bite force, and dissections of the cranial musculature of the three bat species. During the simulation of roost excavation (bilateral canine biting), our data indicate that most regions of the skull of L. silvicolum exhibit less stress than those of T. saurophila and M. hirsuta; however, the latter exhibited the lowest peak stress at the zygomatic arches. During loads that simulate feeding (bilateral molar biting), the three species exhibit similar stress levels. It is not clear whether L. silvicolum has a skull shape that is stronger under the loads imposed by excavation, but it does exhibit relatively higher bilateral canine bite forces that are generated via relatively larger temporalis muscles. Based on the muscle data, our study suggests that the feeding apparatus of mammals can exhibit performance and morphological adaptations to functions other than feeding. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 102, 1–10.

Resume Objectifs Mieux caracteriser les difficultes rencontrees lors de limitation ou d’arret de therapeutiques actives (Lata) en situation d’urgence. Type d’etude Etude par questionnaire adresse a 430 medecins anesthesistes reanimateurs (MAR). Materiel et methodes Envoi et retour des questionnaires par courrier, anonymat des medecins respecte. Resultats Cent soixante douze MAR ont repondu au questionnaire. Ces MAR ont deja participe a une Lata pour 98 % d’entre eux, dont 92 % en situation d’urgence. Dans ce dernier cas, les criteres qui emportent la decision sont lies a la gravite de la presentation clinique et a la probabilite de survenue du deces a court terme. La decision devrait etre collegiale pour 93 % des MAR, mais 50 % ont deja du decider seul d’une Lata en situation d’urgence, principalement en prehospitalier. En pratique, l’arret du support ventilatoire a ete la mesure la plus difficile a prendre. Les soins de confort restaient primordiaux pour 100 % des MAR, mais 26 % d’entre eux ont considere l’analgesie et la sedation apres Lata comme une mesure d’euthanasie. L’eventualite d’une plainte restait une inquietude pour 57 % des MAR, influant sur l’information donnee a la famille et sur la redaction du dossier medical, ameliorable pour 92 % des MAR. Conclusion La decision de Lata en situation d’urgence s’appuie sur la conviction de la survenue a court terme du deces. La realisation de ces Lata est conforme aux principes de collegialite et de soins de confort, mais peut encore beneficier d’ameliorations, notamment dans la redaction du dossier medical et la maitrise ethique et juridique de ces situations extremes.

SUMMARY Bite force is a measure of whole-organism performance that is often used to investigate the relationships between performance, morphology and fitness. When in vivo measurements of bite force are unavailable, researchers often turn to lever models to predict bite forces. This study demonstrates that bite force predictions based on two-dimensional (2-D) lever models can be improved by including three-dimensional (3-D) geometry and realistic physiological cross-sectional areas derived from dissections. Widely used, the 2-D method does a reasonable job of predicting bite force. However, it does so by over predicting physiological cross-sectional areas for the masseter and pterygoid muscles and under predicting physiological cross-sectional areas for the temporalis muscle. We found that lever models that include the three dimensional structure of the skull and mandible and physiological cross-sectional areas calculated from dissected muscles provide the best predictions of bite force. Models that accurately represent the biting mechanics strengthen our understanding of which variables are functionally relevant and how they are relevant to feeding performance.

Rats with combined bilateral lesions of the retrosplenial cortex and the fornix or rats with unilateral lesions to the anterior thalamus and the hippocampus, made in opposite hemispheres (disconnection preparation), and combined with unilateral damage of the retrosplenial cortex in either hemisphere, were tested on a spatial-visual conditional learning task in which they learned arbitrary associations between stimuli and the scene in which they were embedded. All experimental groups were impaired in comparison with normal animals. The more severe deficits occurred when (1) both the fornix and the retrosplenial cortex were damaged bilaterally thus depriving the hippocampus both from subcortical interactions via the fornix and retrosplenial-mediated interactions and (2) when, in the crossed lesion preparation, the unilateral retrosplenial lesion was made in the hemisphere with the intact hippocampus, again because this lesion would be maximally disconnecting the hippocampus from functional interaction with the anterior thalamic nucleus and retrosplenial-mediated input.

Summary 1. In vertebrates, bite force is a measure of whole organism performance that is associated with both cranial morphology and dietary ecology. Mechanistic studies of bite force production have identified morphological features associated with bite force, and linked bite force with diet, but this approach has rarely been used in mammals. 2. Mammals are a good system with which to investigate the function of the feeding apparatus because of the relative simplicity of their skulls and their high dietary diversity. Phyllostomid bats are one of the most trophically and morphologically diverse groups of mammals, but we know little about the relative importance of biomechanical variables in producing bite force or how these variables vary with diet. 3. We combined in vivo measurements of bite force with assessments of muscular and bony morphology to build and validate a model describing the mechanics of bite force production in 25 species of bats. We used this model to investigate how bats with different diets vary in biomechanical parameters that contribute to bite force. In addition to traditional dietary categories, we used a functional definition of diet that reflects the mechanical demands (hardness) of the food items in the natural diet. 4. Our model provided good predictions of in vivo bite forces and highlighted behavioural variation that is inherent in the in vivo data. The temporalis generates the highest moment about the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) axis, but the moment generated by the masseter is the most important variable in explaining variation among species. The dietary classification based on the hardness of the diet was more effective than traditional dietary categories in describing biomechanical differences among groups. The temporalis generated the highest proportion of the moment about the TMJ axis in species with very hard and hard diets, the masseter was most important for species with soft diets, and the medial pterygoid was most important for species with liquid diets. 5. Our results highlight the utility of combining a modelling approach with in vivo data when conducting ecomorphological studies, and the importance of ecological classifications that reflect functional importance of performance traits.

The life history of figs (Ficus, Moraceae) involves pollination by specialized insects and seed dispersal by vertebrate frugivores. This three-way interaction raises the possibility of conflict between pollinators and seed dispersers over fig resources. The conflict might be mediated in dioecious figs by the segregation of inflorescences with specialized male and female sexual functions, termed gall figs and seed figs, on separate trees. In dioecious figs, pollinators are intimately associated with gall figs, whereas vertebrate frugivores prefer seed figs and disperse the seeds they contain. Optimal foraging theory predicts that frugivore preference for ripe seed figs is associated with superior nutritional quality when compared to gall figs. We tested this prediction comparing nutrient and mineral properties of ripe figs in 12 functionally dioecious and two monoecious species from New Guinea. Analyses of variance indicated that gall figs contain more fiber and minerals, whereas seed figs contain significantly more carbohydrates and fat. Fruit bats, the primary dispersers of dioecious figs in New Guinea, prefer carbohydrate-rich diets, and from this perspective, seed figs offer a greater nutritional reward than gall figs. More nondigestible fiber in gall figs than seed figs would appear to discourage frugivory. Parallel differences between ripe gall figs and seed figs occur in each independent dioecious lineage whereas nutritional content in monoecious figs is more similar to seed figs. This suggests that sexual dimorphism in nutritional quality might be adaptive and associated with the maintenance of functional dioecy in figs.

The skeletons of birds are universally described as lightweight as a result of selection for minimizing the energy required for flight. From a functional perspective, the weight (mass) of an animal relative to its lift-generating surfaces is a key determinant of the metabolic cost of flight. The evolution of birds has been characterized by many weight-saving adaptations that are reflected in bone shape, many of which strengthen and stiffen the skeleton. Although largely unstudied in birds, the material properties of bone tissue can also contribute to bone strength and stiffness. In this study, I calculated the density of the cranium, humerus and femur in passerine birds, rodents and bats by measuring bone mass and volume using helium displacement. I found that, on average, these bones are densest in birds, followed closely by bats. As bone density increases, so do bone stiffness and strength. Both of these optimization criteria are used in the design of strong and stiff, but lightweight, manmade airframes. By analogy, increased bone density in birds and bats may reflect adaptations for maximizing bone strength and stiffness while minimizing bone mass and volume. These data suggest that both bone shape and the material properties of bone tissue have played important roles in the evolution of flight. They also reconcile the conundrum of how bird skeletons can appear to be thin and delicate, yet contribute just as much to total body mass as do the skeletons of terrestrial mammals.

In addition to acting as a growth site, sutures in the facial skeleton are important for distributing mechanical forces during mastication. In the present study, the extent of fusion of a facial suture is assessed in two samples of adult bushbabies (Galago moholi and Otolemur garnettii). Microanatomical techniques were used to determine the loci of osseous bridges across the nasomaxillary suture (NMS). Histological sections containing sutures with osseous bridging were rated as "fused." One of the specimens was studied using micro-computed tomography before paraffin embedding and serial sectioning. At all ages, O. garnettii shows more advanced fusion of the NMS than G. moholi. The youngest O. garnettii shows multiple foci of fusion of the NMS; however, 13% of the posterior most suture is patent. Throughout the NMS of this animal, sutural fusion is isolated to one or two small osseous bridges, typically of woven bone. These bridges are most often on the external (superficial) surface of the suture, but in numerous sections the site of fusion occurs deep to an external notch. In G. moholi, the youngest adults studied showed little or no fusion across the NMS. However, the nasal and maxillary bones were indirectly tethered at some levels by other bones that were fused to both nasal and maxillary bones. These results indicate that microanatomical evidence is required to fully assess the extent of fusion of facial sutures. These findings also support previous observations of differing magnitude of suture fusion between the two species.

The breadth of an animals' ecological niche is circumscribed by its morphology, performance, and behavior, 3 factors that can ultimately affect fitness. We investigated potential behavioral and performance adaptations to roost making, a life-history trait associated with high fitness in the insectivorous bat Lophostoma silvicolum. Males of this species use their teeth to excavate roosts in active termite nests, which we found to be much harder than the hardest prey in the bats' diet (beetles). We compared roost making and feeding behavior in L. silvicolum. We also compared the feeding behavior of L. silvicolum to that of 2 similar species that do not excavate roosts. All 3 species predominantly used bilateral bites centered on the premolar and molar teeth to eat beetles. In contrast, L. silvicolum used mainly bilateral bites involving the incisors and canines for roost excavation. All species generated similar bite forces during biting behaviors associated with feeding, but L. silvicolum generated significantly higher bite forces during biting behaviors used for roost excavation. We found no difference in canine tooth wear between the sexes, but tooth wear was significantly higher in an ecologically similar species that does not excavate roosts. We conclude that the behavior, performance, and possibly morphology of L. silvicolum represent adaptations to roost excavation.

Variation in behaviour, performance and ecology are traditionally associated with variation in morphology. A neglected part of this ecomorphological paradigm is the interaction between behaviour and performance, the ability to carry out tasks that impact fitness. Here we investigate the relationship between biting behaviour and performance (bite force) among 20 species of ecologically diverse bats. We studied the patterns of evolution of plasticity in biting behaviour and bite force, and reconstructed ancestral states for behaviour and its plasticity. Both behavioural and performance plasticity exhibited accelerating evolution over time, and periods of rapid evolution coincided with major dietary shifts from insect-feeding to plant-feeding. We found a significant, positive correlation between behavioural plasticity and bite force. Bats modulated their performance by changing their biting behaviour to maximize bite force when feeding on hard foods. The ancestor of phyllostomids was likely a generalist characterized by high behavioural plasticity, a condition that also evolved in specialized frugivores and potentially contributed to their diversification.

Ninety-nine Charolais heifers were used to study the variability of meat quality traits in relation to the physicochemical characteristics of M. rectus abdominis . The heifers of the same trade class were slaughtered at 33 months of age (±4 months) and 381 kg carcass weight (±31 kg). Muscle and bone development scores were evaluated before slaughter. Carcass weight, slaughter age and life average daily gain were recorded. Shear force measurements and meat quality traits were evaluated after 14 days of aging. Some physicochemical characteristics were measured 24 h post-slaughter. Tenderness was correlated with slaughter age ( r = −0.31), bone development ( r = −0.22) and life average daily gain ( r = +0.37). Tenderness was significantly related to total collagen content ( r = −0.24), lipid content ( r = +0.27) and I myosin heavy chain proportion ( r = +0.24). Juiciness was positively correlated with lipid content ( r = +0.31) and I myosin heavy chain proportion ( r = +0.20). Flavor intensity was correlated with lipid content ( r = +0.26) and mean fiber area ( r = +0.24). Shear force was correlated with total collagen, lipid and 27K proteasome sub-unit contents. Taking animal characteristics and muscle properties together in a multiple regression analysis increased the explained tenderness variability to 33%. The independent variables listed in order of importance were life average daily gain, total collagen content, bone development, lipid content, I myosin heavy chain isoform proportion, shear force of broiled meat and slaughter age.

The shape of the cranium varies widely among members of the order Carnivora, but the factors that drive the evolution of differences in shape remain unclear. Selection for increased bite force, bite speed or skull strength may all affect cranial morphology. We investigated the relationship between cranial form and function in the trophically diverse dog family, Canidae, using linear morphometrics and finite element (FE) analyses that simulated the internal and external forces that act on the skull during the act of prey capture and killing. In contrast to previous FE-based studies, we compared models using a newly developed method that removes the effects of size and highlights the relationship between shape and performance. Cranial shape varies among canids based on diet, and different selective forces presumably drove evolution of these phenotypes. The long, narrow jaws of small prey specialists appear to reflect selection for fast jaw closure at the expense of bite force. Generalists have intermediate jaw dimensions and produce moderate bite forces, but their crania are comparable in strength to those of small prey specialists. Canids that take large prey have short, broad jaws, produce the largest bite forces and possess very strong crania. Our FE simulations suggest that the remarkable strength of skulls of large prey specialists reflect the additional ability to resist extrinsic loads that may be encountered while struggling with large prey items.

The ability to break open large bones has evolved independently in only three groups of carnivorous mammals, all of which have robust teeth, vaulted foreheads, and pronounced sagittal crests. One unusual skull feature, present in bone-cracking members of the family Hyaenidae, is a caudally elongated frontal sinus, hypothesized to function in resistance to bending and stress dissipation during bone-cracking. In the present study, we used finite element (FE) analysis to examine patterns of stress distribution in the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) skull during unilateral biting, and inquire about the functional role of the fronto-parietal sinus in stress dissipation. We constructed and compared three FE models: (1) a ‘normal’ model of an adult Crocuta skull; (2) a model in which the caudal portion of the fronto-parietal sinus was filled with bone; and (3) a model in which we flattened the sagittal crest to resemble the plate-like crests of other mammals. During biting, an arc of stress extends from the bite point up through the vaulted forehead and along the sagittal crest. Our results suggest that pneumatization of the hyena's skull both enhances its ability to resist bending and, together with the vaulted forehead, plays a critical role in evenly dissipating stress away from the facial region. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 95, 246–255.

Objective: The relationship of the human premaxillary bone (Pmx) to neighboring craniofacial structures is clouded by its embryonic union with the maxillary bone proper. Only humans among all primates have such early fusion of the premaxillomaxillary suture (PS). This study surveyed the relationship of the PS to the upper deciduous dentition in nonhuman primates, and describes the distribution of bone cells along the osseous margins of the Pmx. Method: Twenty-eight subadult primates were studied using gross, CT, and histologic observations. Location of the anterior deciduous dentition relative to the PS was assessed. In sections of selected specimens, observations of bone cells on the osseous boundaries of the Pmx were made. Osteopontin (OPN) immunohistochemistry was used to isolate osteoclastic binding sites along the Pmx boundaries. Results: The PS was consistently found between deciduous incisor and canine in strepsirrhines of all ages, whereas the suture passed variably closer to the incisor or canine in haplorhines. In all species, the anterior part of the Pmx was nonarticulating and mostly osteoblastic, except for osteoclastic margins adjacent to dentition and the nasal fossa. Superolaterally, the osteogenic fronts of the PS were osteoblastic, while more inferiorly, at the level of the deciduous canine, the PS was often osteoclastic. Results from OPN immunohistochemistry support the findings on bone cell distribution. Conclusion: Bone cell distribution patterns in perinatal nonhuman primates resemble those described for the prenatal human Pmx, suggesting that differences among species relate to magnitude rather than the pattern of osteogenesis.

It has been hypothesized that the extensively overlapping temporal and parietal bones of the squamosal sutures in Paranthropus boisei are adaptations for withstanding loads associated with feeding. Finite element analysis (FEA) was used to investigate the biomechanical effects of suture size (i.e., the area of overlap between the temporal and parietal bones) on stress, strain energy, and strain ratio in the squamosal sutures of Pan troglodytes and P. boisei (specimen OH 5) during biting. Finite element models (FEMs) of OH 5 and a P. troglodytes cranium were constructed from CT scans. These models contain sutures that approximate the actual suture sizes preserved in both crania. The FEM of Pan was then modified to create two additional FEMs with squamosal sutures that are 50% smaller and 25% larger than those in the original model. Comparisons among the models test the effect of suture size on the structural integrity of the squamosal suture as the temporal squama and parietal bone move relative to each other during simulated premolar biting. Results indicate that with increasing suture size there is a decreased risk of suture failure, and that maximum stress values in the OH 5 suture were favorable compared to values in the Pan model with the normal suture size. Strain ratios suggest that shear is an important strain regime in the squamosal suture. This study is consistent with the hypothesis that larger sutures help reduce the likelihood of suture failure under high biting loads

Recent developments and achievements of the EUROfusion Code Development for Integrated Modelling project (WPCD), which aim is to provide a validated integrated modelling suite for the simulation and prediction of complete plasma discharges in any tokamak, are presented. WPCD develops generic complex integrated simulations, workflows, for physics applications, using the standardized European Integrated Modelling (EU-IM) framework. Selected physics applications of EU-IM workflows are illustrated in this paper.

We introduce an analysis method to demonstrate correlation between biota and the physical habitats that they occupy. Using the same calculations as does Nei's genetic distance index, this method builds independent dissimilarity matrices for both habitat and fauna, which can then be compared in a common statistical framework. An important advantage of this method is that only frequency data are necessary to perform the analysis. We demonstrate the utility of this method using fish community and habitat data from the Eightmile and Pomperaug rivers in Connecticut. In both cases, there is a significant correlation between biota and habitat. Not only is ecological dissimilarity analysis a useful technique for testing community-to-habitat correlation, it is also an excellent tool for communi- cating this information to the many non-scientists who shape conservation policy.

The impact of exposure to Ag on the development and maintenance of human CD4+ memory T cells in general and HIV infection in particular is partially understood. In this study, we measured HIV-specific CD4+ T cell proliferative responses against HIV proteins and derived peptides one year after highly active antiretroviral therapy initiation in 39 HIV-infected patients who initiated therapy at different times following infection. We show that a brief exposure to HIV of

This work introduces two mechanics-based approaches to modeling muscle forces exerted on curvilinear bone structures and compares the results with two traditional ad hoc methods of muscle loading. These new models use a combination of tensile, tangential, and normal traction loads to account for muscle fibers wrapped around curved bone surfaces. A computer program was written to interface with a commercial finite element analysis tool to automatically apply traction loads to surface faces of elements in muscle attachment regions according to the various muscle modeling methods. We modeled a highly complex skeletal structure, the skull of a Jamaican fruit bat (Artibeus jamaicensis), to compare the four muscle-loading methods. While reasonable qualitative agreement was found in the states of stress of the skull between the four muscle load modeling methods, there were substantial quantitative differences predicted in the stress states in some high stressed regions of the skull. Furthermore, our mechanics-based models required significantly less total applied muscle force to generate a bite-point reaction force identical to those produced by the ad hoc muscle loading models. Although the methods are not validated by in vivo data, we submit that muscle-load modeling methods that account for the underlying physics of muscle wrapping on curved bone surfaces are likely to provide more realistic results than ad hoc approaches that do not. We also note that, due to the geometric complexity of many bone structures—such as the skull analyzed here—load transmission paths are difficult to conceptualize a priori. Consequently, it is difficult to predict spatially where the results of finite element analyses are likely to be compromised by using ad hoc muscle modeling methods. For these reasons, it is recommended that a mechanics-based method be adopted for determination of the proper traction loads to be applied to skeletal structures due to muscular activity. Anat Rec, 290:1069‐1088, 2007. ! 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma is characterized by a high rate of early metastatic relapse. Surgical resection is still recognized as the cornerstone upfront therapy. However, reported 5 years survival rates are inferior to 20-25% even when surgery is followed by chemotherapy. Margins involvement on the surgical specimen (50 to 85%) and lymph node involvement (around 70%) both strongly impact survival. Median survivals are close to those of locally advanced diseases treated by chemotherapy or chemoradiotherapy, 15 to 16 months. This review focuses on adverse prognostic factors, post-operative outcomes and their impact on multimodality therapy completion rates and survivals in patients undergoing upfront surgery. Current data and emerging results from neoadjuvant series could lead to a change in the therapeutic strategy.

Navigation is a complex cognitive process that is vital for survival. The rodent hippocampus has long been implicated in spatial memory and navigation. Following the discovery of place cells, found in the hippocampus, a variety of other spatially tuned neural correlates of navigation have been found in a widely distributed network that is both anatomically and functionally interconnected with the hippocampus. Angular head velocity, head direction, and grid cells are among some of the additional spatial neural correlates. The importance of these different cells and how they function interdependently to subserve navigation is reviewed below.

International audience; Three different production systems for autumn born dairy steers, managed more or less intensively, have been investigated. The aim of the production systems were to use a basic diet of grass, either grazed or conserved as silage or hay, combined in various proportions. The animals were slaughtered, aiming for the same degree of fattening, but at three ages. The intensive management aimed at slaughter in January-February at 26-28 months of age after indoor finishing with silage or hay. An "intensive out of season" management wished improves at slaughter at 28-30 months of age. Finally an extensive management with finishing at grazing resulted in slaughter in May-June at 30-33 months of age. In three successive factorial experiments, 106 steers of two genotypes, Holstein and Montbéliard were reared to test the effects of the three production systems. The animals were evaluated for productive traits, carcass quality and biochemical characteristics of m.longissimus thoracis and M. rhomboideus thoracis. For both breeds, the "extensive" animals produced heavier carcass (+20kg between "intensive" and "extensive"; P

It is now well established that the cytokine environment influences the activation, differentiation, proliferation and death of T lymphocytes during the primary response to antigen. Using an in vitro model, we investigated the influence of IL-4, added at the onset of TCR stimulation, on phenotypic and functional markers of naive CD8 1 T cell activation including the up-regulation of activation markers, proliferation as well as the susceptibility to activation-induced cell death (AICD). We report that IL-4, unlike IL-2 added at the onset of repeated TCR stimulation of naive CD8 1 T cells prevents AICD, in part due to its ability to maintain the level of the survival-related protein Bcl-2. Moreover, TCR-triggered activation of naive CD8 1 T cells in the presence of IL-4 leads to the development of a CD8 1 T cell subset that proliferates normally, but which fails to exhibit characteristic activation parameters such as the up-regulation of CD25 and Granzyme B. Taken together, these results demonstrate that exposure to IL-4 during primary activation influences CD8 1 T cell differentiation by inducing the development of a sub-population of AICD-resistant, proliferation-competent cells that do not show some of the typical features of CD8 1 T cell activation.

In this study we identified homogeneous risk groups, with no survival overlap among the subgroups that make up each risk group, in patients with transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder treated with radical cystectomy alone.Predictive factors for tumor death were analyzed with univariate and multivariate analysis among a group of 298 patients with transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder treated with radical cystectomy alone. Independent variables were progressively incorporated according to their statistical power in a stepwise process identifying a model with independent subgroups. The risk groups were identified according to different survival cutoff points including subgroups with similar survival. To search a clinical application and to check the strength of this model a new model was also set up using the weight score based on the size of hazard ratio from multivariate analysis.Univariate analysis demonstrated that lymphatic invasion status, pathological stage (P), lymph node status (N) and prostatic stroma status (St) were predictive variables for tumor death, and the latter 3 were independent variables in the multivariate analysis. By taking the most powerful, N, as the reference variable, and progressively incorporating additional variables, a model was found including 7 independent subgroups. In this model only 2 subgroups, N1 and N2-3, included more than 1 category and their survival was also calculated. Three risk groups were identified establishing different survival cutoffs. The 5-year cancer specific survival rate was 86.4% for low risk (P1-2N0St-), 64.4% (range 60.9% to 65.3%) for intermediate risk (P1-2N1St-, P3N0St-, HR = 2.7) and 28.1% (range 0% to 47.7%) for high risk (N2-3, P4, St+, N1P3, HR = 8.7). This model was also reproduced using the weight score based on the size of the hazard ratio from the multivariate analysisThree homogeneous risk groups were identified with high statistically significant survival differences among them and no survival overlap among subgroups that make up the risk groups.

The role of TCR ligand density (i.e. the number of antigen-MHC complexes) in modulating the diversity of a T cell response selected from a pool of naive precursors remains largely undefined. By measuring early-activation markers up-regulation and proliferation following stimulation with staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA), we demonstrate that decreasing the ligand dose below an optimal concentration leads to the delayed activation of a restricted set of TCRVbeta-bearing T cells, with the specific, non-stochastic exclusion of some TCRVbeta+ T cells from the activated pool. Our results suggest that the failure of these TCRVbeta-bearing T cells to reach the activation threshold at sub-optimal ligand concentration is due to the inefficiency of TCR engagement, as measured by TCR internalization, and does not correlate with the relative precursor frequency in the non-immune repertoire. Moreover, even at SEA concentrations that lead to the simultaneous proliferation of all SEA-reactive T cells, we observe marked differences in the ability to secrete cytokines among the different responsive TCRVbeta-bearing T cells. Altogether, our results indicate that the development of a T cell response to a scarce display of ligand significantly narrows TCR repertoire diversity by mechanisms that involve focusing of the repertoire on the expansion of those T cells with the highest avidity of TCR engagement.

The wide range of dietary niches filled by modern mammals is reflected in morphological diversity of the feeding apparatus. Despite volumes of data on the biomechanics of feeding, the extent to which the shape of mammal skulls reflects stresses generated by feeding is still unknown. In addition to the feeding apparatus, the skull accommodates the structural needs of the sensory systems and brain. We turned to bats as a model system for separating optimization for masticatory loads from optimization for other functions. Because the energetic cost of flight increases with body mass, it is reasonable to suggest that bats have experienced selective pressure over evolutionary time to minimize mass. Therefore, the skulls of bats are likely to be optimized to meet functional demands. We investigate the hypothesis that there is a biomechanical link between biting style and craniofacial morphology by combining biting behavior and bite force data gathered in the field with finite-element (FE) analysis. Our FE experiments compared patterns of stress in the craniofacial skeletons within and between two species of bats (Artibeus jamaicensis and Cynopterus brachyotis) under routine and atypical loading conditions. For both species, routine loading produced low stresses in most of the skull. However, the skull of Artibeus was most resistant to loads applied via its typical biting style, suggesting a mechanical link between routine loading and skull form. The same was not true of Cynopterus, where factors other than feeding appear to have had a more significant impact on craniofacial morphology. © 2005 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Neonatal surgical antibioprophylaxis must take into account the specificities of this life period, as immunological immaturity, microbiotal implantation and antibiotic treatment pharmacokinetics properties. Very few data are available, but it seems that coagulase negative Staphylococcus (CNS) is the most reported bacteria, in intestinal tract at the time of surgery as well as in surgical site infections. Usual vertical transmission bacteria as S. agalactiae or E. coli K1 are rarely documented. The antibioprophylaxis treatment must consider the age and the environmental context of the newborn; first or second generation cephalosporins sometimes in association with vancomycin seem appropriate in this context. It is now urgent to conduct clinical trials in order to validate theses propositions.

Adaptations to a plant-based diet have evolved in bats on two occasions — once in the Old World family Pteropodidae and again within the New World family Phyllostomidae. Although the skulls of all plant-visiting bats exhibit adaptations for relatively large eyes, enlarged brains, and reduced molar complexity, the skulls of bats from the two families look very different. The goals of this study are to pinpoint the fundamental differences in the cranial shape between pteropodids and plant-visiting phyllostomids and to investigate patterns of diversity in cranial shape within each lineage. Analyses are based on 19 size adjusted, linear variables collected from 335 specimens that represent 71% of pteropodid and 45% of plant-visiting phyllostomid genera. Results of a stepwise discriminant function analysis indicate that differences in cranial shape between pteropodids and plant-visiting phyllostomids involve general aspects of relative braincase width, palate width and coronoid process height. Pteropodids have...

Figs (Ficus species) are an important resource for a diverse array of organisms in most tropical forests (Janzen 1979 but see Gautier-Hion & Michaloud 1989). The inflorescence of Ficus, hereafter referred to as the ‘fig’, is an enclosed receptacle lined with unisexual flowers. The flowers of Ficus species are pollinated by wasps that feed on galled fig ovules as larvae and that lay eggs in fig flowers as adults (Weiblen 2002). Ripe figs are consumed by vertebrate frugivores, which are the primary dispersers of fig seeds (Shanahan et al. 2001). The interaction between figs, pollinators and frugivores introduces the potential for conflict between the roles of raising fig wasps and dispersing seeds. Specifically, the pollination mutualism could be compromised if frugivores consumed figs containing pollinator larvae. This conflict is resolved in very different ways according to the breeding system of the fig.

Old World fruit bats (family Pteropodidae) are common throughout the Paleotropics, where they play an important ecological role as seed dispersers and pollinators. Although many regions host diverse assemblages of fruit bats, mechanisms of resource partitioning are only beginning to be documented. This study investigates the potential role of feeding behavior in patterns of resource use within a sympatric assemblage of pteropodids from Papua New Guinea. Individuals of Syconycteris australis, Dobsonia minor, Pteropus conspicillatus, Nyctimene albiventer, and Paranyctimene raptor were videotaped during feeding experiments designed to elicit shifts in feeding (biting) behavior by varying fruit hardness. Although significant variation exists among species in biting behavior, the clear association between trophic ecology and feeding behavior seen in New World fruit bats does not exist in this assemblage of Old World species. Rather, the combinations of behavior and morphology exhibited by these bats appear to represent 2 different solutions to the ecological challenge of feeding on relatively hard fruits.

FUNDAMENTO: Seleccionar un grupo de marcadores tumorales útiles en el carcinoma renal (CR) para su ulterior estudio y desarrollo. MÉTODOS: Determinación seriada en suero de 21 pacientes con CR de los siguientes marcadores: VSG, PCR, hemograma y recuento diferencial leucocitario (RDL), bioquímica estándar, ß2-microglobulina, CEA, CA 12.5, CA 50, CA 15.3, ferritina, interleukina-6, receptor de la interleukina-2, factor de necrosis tumoral a y antígeno tisular polipeptídico. RESULTADOS: Diferentes elementos dentro del RDL tuvieron relación con la presencia de clínica, con el tamaño, estadio patológico y la progresión tumoral. Se observa un incremento estadísticamente significativo de los valores de la ß-2 microglobulina y del RIL-2 en el momento de la progresión, así como un aumento con tendencia a la significación de los valores de la PCR y las fosfatasas alcalinas. La ß-2 microglobulina y el RIL-2 decrecen significativamente al tratar la progresión. CONCLUSIONES: Seguiremos determinando el hemograma, RDL y bioquímica estándar, la PCR, la ferritina, la ß-2 microglobulina, y el RIL-2 exclusivamente con el objeto de delimitar su utilidad en el seguimiento de los pacientes con CR, desestimando la determinación del resto de marcadores testados.

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (AHSCT) leads to a prolonged state of immunodeficiency characterized by low peripheral naive T-cell counts. To identify the mechanisms leading to this defect we quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed thymic function through quantification of T-cell receptor excision circle (TREC) frequencies (both the signal-joint TREC [sjTREC] and 6 different DbetaJbeta TRECs, by-products of T-cell receptor [TCR] alpha and beta gene rearrangement, respectively), in conjunction with immunophenotype and spectratype analyses in a cohort of patients sampled from 1 to 10 years following AHSCT. In this cohort, reduced thymic function was associated only with ongoing clinical chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD). Nonetheless, the diversity of thymic production remained unchanged irrespective of the patient's cGVHD status. Interestingly, increased homeostatic proliferation was found in the naive T-cell compartment of cGVHD- patients who underwent transplantation. However, reduced expression of both the interleukin-7 receptor alpha (IL-7Ralpha) (CD127) chain and the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 was observed. Taken together, these data indicate that the inability to reconstitute the naive T-cell compartment for several years after AHSCT, in the absence of cGVHD, is a consequence of impaired naive T-cell survival rather than thymic dysfunction.

CD4+ T cell responses are associated with disease control in chronic viral infections. We analyzed human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-specific responses in ten aviremic and eight viremic patients treated during primary HIV-1 infection and for up to 6 yr thereafter. Using a highly sensitive 5-(and-6)-carboxyfluorescein diacetate-succinimidyl ester-based proliferation assay, we observed that proliferative Gag and Nef peptide-specific CD4+ T cell responses were 30-fold higher in the aviremic patients. Two subsets of HIV-specific memory CD4+ T cells were identified in aviremic patients, CD45RA- CCR7+ central memory cells (Tcm) producing exclusively interleukin (IL)-2, and CD45RA- CCR7- effector memory cells (Tem) that produced both IL-2 and interferon (IFN)-gamma. In contrast, in viremic, therapy-failing patients, we found significant frequencies of Tem that unexpectedly produced exclusively IFN-gamma. Longitudinal analysis of HIV epitope-specific CD4+ T cells revealed that only cells that had the capacity to produce IL-2 persisted as long-term memory cells. In viremic patients the presence of IFN-gamma-producing cells was restricted to periods of elevated viremia. These findings suggest that long-term CD4+ T cell memory depends on IL-2-producing CD4+ T cells and that IFN-gamma only-producing cells are short lived. Our data favor a model whereby competent HIV-specific Tcm continuously arise in small numbers but under persistent antigenemia are rapidly induced to differentiate into IFN-gamma only-producing cells that lack self-renewal capacity.

In 4 experiments, rats had to discriminate between the lengths of 2 objects of the same color, black or white, before a test trial with the same objects but of opposite color. The experiments took place in a pool from which rats had to escape by swimming to 1 of 2 submerged platforms. For Experiments 1 and 2, the platforms were situated near the centers of panels of 1 length, but not another, that were pasted onto the gray walls of a square arena. The acquired preference for the correct length was eliminated by changing the color of the panels. In Experiment 3, the platforms were situated near the middle of the long walls of a rectangular pool, and in Experiment 4 they were situated in 1 pair of diagonally opposite corners of the same pool. Changing the color of the walls markedly disrupted the effects of the original training in both experiments. The results indicate that rats represent the length of objects not by their abstract, geometric attributes but in a more concrete fashion such as by a mental snapshot or by the amount of color stimulation they provide.

The morphology of the nasal cavity in mammals with a good sense of smell includes features that are thought to improve olfactory airflow, such as a dorsal conduit that delivers odours quickly to the olfactory mucosa, an enlarged olfactory recess at the back of the airway, and a clear separation of the olfactory and respiratory regions of the nose. The link between these features and having a good sense of smell has been established by functional examinations of a handful of distantly related mammalian species. In this paper, we provide the first detailed examination of olfactory airflow in a group of closely related species that nevertheless vary in their sense of smell. We study six species of phyllostomid bats that have different airway morphologies and foraging ecologies, which have been linked to differences in olfactory ability or reliance. We hypothesize that differences in morphology correlate with differences in the patterns and rates of airflow, which in turn are consistent with dietary differences. To compare species, we make qualitative and quantitative comparisons of the patterns and rates of airflow through the olfactory region during both inhalation and exhalation across the six species. Contrary to our expectations, we find no clear differences among species in either the patterns of airflow through the airway or in rates of flow through the olfactory region. By and large, olfactory airflow seems to be conserved across species, suggesting that morphological differences appear to be driven by other mechanical demands on the snout, such as breathing and feeding. Olfactory ability may depend on other aspects of the system, such as the neurobiological processing of odours that work within the existing morphology imposed by other functional demands on the nasal cavity.

New experiments at JET with the ITER-like wall show for the first time that ITER-relevant low field side resonance first harmonic ion cyclotron resonance heating (ICRH) can be used to control sawteeth that have been initially lengthened by fast particles. In contrast to previous (Graves et al 2012 Nat. Commun. 3 624) high field side resonance sawtooth control experiments undertaken at JET, it is found that the sawteeth of L-mode plasmas can be controlled with less accurate alignment between the resonance layer and the sawtooth inversion radius. This advantage, as well as the discovery that sawteeth can be shortened with various antenna phasings, including dipole, indicates that ICRH is a particularly effective and versatile tool that can be used in future fusion machines for controlling sawteeth. Without sawtooth control, neoclassical tearing modes (NTMs) and locked modes were triggered at very low normalised beta. High power H-mode experiments show the extent to which ICRH can be tuned to control sawteeth and NTMs while simultaneously providing effective electron heating with improved flushing of high Z core impurities. Dedicated ICRH simulations using SELFO, SCENIC and EVE, including wide drift orbit effects, explain why sawtooth control is effective with various antenna phasings and show that the sawtooth control mechanism cannot be explained by enhancement of the magnetic shear. Hybrid kinetic-magnetohydrodynamic stability calculations using MISHKA and HAGIS unravel the optimal sawtooth control regimes in these ITER relevant plasma conditions.